Mike Pence Autograph Signed Acoustic Guitar Republican Trump Vice President ACOA

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Mike Pence Autograph Signed Acoustic Guitar Republican Trump Vice President ACOA

Mike Pence Autograph Signed Acoustic Guitar Republican Trump Vice President ACOA
Mike Pence Autograph Signed Acoustic Guitar Republican Trump Vice President ACOA This item has been thoroughly reviewed and inspected by the top celebrity autograph experts at AutographCOA (ACOA) Authentication. Verification of this item’s authenticity can be confirmed by visiting the AutographCOA web site once your item is received. Actual signature may vary, and every autograph we offer has been reviewed, verified, and certified by third-party autograph authentication experts. If you would like to see a picture of the exact autograph you will receive, feel free to message us.
Mike Pence Autograph Signed Acoustic Guitar Republican Trump Vice President ACOA

AUTOGRAPH TURKEY RARE PRESIDENT Cemal Gürsel COUP SIGNED CARD ORIGINAL VINTAGE

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AUTOGRAPH TURKEY RARE PRESIDENT Cemal Gürsel COUP SIGNED CARD ORIGINAL VINTAGE
AUTOGRAPH TURKEY RARE PRESIDENT Cemal Gürsel COUP SIGNED CARD ORIGINAL VINTAGE

AUTOGRAPH TURKEY RARE PRESIDENT Cemal Gürsel COUP SIGNED CARD ORIGINAL VINTAGE
A VERY RARE VINTAGE ORIGINAL AUTOGRAPH OF. Former President of Turkey ON APPROXIMATELY 3X4 CARD. Cemal Gürsel Turkish: d? Sæl; 13 October 1895 – 14 September 1966 was a Turkish army general who became the fourth President of Turkey after a coup. [citation needed] After the elementary school in Ordu and the military middle school in Erzincan, he graduated from the Kuleli military high school in Istanbul. He was a popular figure and was therefore nicknamed “Cemal Aga” (big brother Cemal) since his childhood school years and onwards all his life. Gürsel served in the Army for 45 years. During World War I, he participated in the Battle of Çanakkale in Dardanelles, Gallipoli as a lieutenant with the First Battery of the 12th Artillery Regiment in 1915 and received the War Medal. He later fought at the Palestine and Syria fronts in 1917 and became a prisoner of war by the British while suffering malaria during his command of the 5th Battery of the 41st Regiment on 19 September 1918. Gürsel was kept as a prisoner of war in Egypt until 6 October 1920. During his presidency much later, when interviewed by the foreign press as to why he had not learned English during his captivity, he somewhat regretfully recalled that he was so frustrated to be a captive, he protested and studied French in the British camp instead. He was promoted for gallantry in the First Division excelling in the battles of Second Inönü, Eskisehir and Sakarya, and was later awarded the Medal of Independence by the first Parliament for his combat service in the Final Offensive. Gürsel was married, in 1927, to Melahat, the daughter of the chief engineer on the Ottoman cruiser Hamidiye. From this marriage, a son Özdemir was born. The couple adopted a daughter Türkan. Cemal Gürsel attended the Turkish Military College and graduated in 1929 as a staff officer. He was promoted colonel in 1940. He was made a brigadier general in 1946 and made commander of the 65th Division. He was later the commander of the 12th Division, the 18th Corps commander, and commander of the 2nd Interior Tasks District. Made Lieutenant general in 1953, was general in 1957, being appointed Commander of 3rd Army. Service included chief of intelligence, and he was appointed as the Commander of Land Forces in 1958 when he was commanding an army. Gürsel, as an easy-going and fatherly figure with a fine sense of humor, was well liked both nationally and in NATO circles, and had earned the respect and confidence of both the nation and the armed forces with his professional knowledge and demeanor. A patriotic memorandum he sent on 3 May 1960 to the Minister of Defense in an effort to establish checks and balances on ongoing affairs, reflecting his personal views in continuation of the chat they had the night before, expressing his support to the prime minister Adnan Menderes and belief that the Prime Minister should replace the President with immediate effect to bolster a much needed national unity, resulted in his suspension from his post, forcing early retirement instead of becoming the next Chief of the Turkish General Staff. A farewell letter by him, advocating and urging the army to stay out of politics, was forwarded to all units of the armed forces at the time of his departure on leave. Cemal Gürsel’s statement read:’Always hold high the honor of the army and the uniform you wear. Protect yourselves from the current ambitious and harmful political atmosphere in the country. Stay away from the politics at all cost. This is of utmost importance to your honor, the army’s might and the future of the country. He went to Izmir where he became the president of the Anti-Communism Association of Turkey. See also: 1960 Turkish coup d’état. A coup d’état organised and conducted by army officers at the rank of colonels and below took place without the participation or leadership of Cemal Gürsel on 27 May 1960 after continuing civilian and academia unrests throughout the country. It is rumored that four-star general Ragip Gümüspala, the Commander of the Third Army based in Eastern Anatolia, gave an ultimatum to the rebelling officers that if they did not have a general appointed as their head, the Third Army would attack to take over the capital and the administration of the country, thereby forcing the rebel group to find a senior officer over them. Because of his immense popularity among the public and military ranks, Gürsel was subsequently chosen by the revolutionaries overnight and brought into the chairmanship of the military coup and became, as of 2015, the only leader in the world put into power by a military takeover who had previously had no role in its planning or execution. He, while still in his pajamas, was escorted to Ankara in the military C-47 transport plane by a captain who was the youngest officer of the radical coup team who that by that time had already sent President Celal Bayar, Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, Chief of General Staff Rüstü Erdelhun and some other members of the ruling Democratic Party to a military court on Yassiada in the Sea of Marmara, accusing them of violation of the constitution. The day after the coup, four-star general Cemal Gürsel was declared the commander in chief, Head of state, Prime minister and Minister of Defense of the 24th government on 30 May 1960, in theory giving him more absolute powers than even Kemal Atatürk had ever had. Gürsel freed 200 students and nine newsmen, and licensed 14 banned newspapers to start publishing again (Time, 6 June 1960). He fetched ten law professors, namely Siddik Sami Onar, Hifzi Veldet Velidedeoglu, Ragip Sarica, Naci Sensoy, Hüseyin Nail Kubali, Tarik Zafer Tunaya, Ismet Giritli, Ilhan Arsel, Bahri Savci and Muammer Aksoy, accompanied by Erdogan Teziç, a law postgraduate student as their assistant (later Chairman of the Turkish Council of Higher Education), from Istanbul and Ankara Universities to help draft a new constitution on 27 May, right after he arrived in Ankara. During their first meeting with General Cemal Gürsel on the same day, Prof. Onar declared on behalf of the group of law academicians that’the circumstances of the day should not be interpreted as an ordinary and political coup d’état, implying the revolution being brought by the change process starting in the republic that day. President Cemal Gürsel also formed a scientific council to guide the Ministry of Defence, later forming the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey to advise the government more broadly. He appointed General Ragip Gümüspala, the commander of the Third Army, as the new Chief of the General Staff who, upon his retirement in two months, was succeeded by General Cevdet Sunay, and Gümüspala was further directed by Gürsel to form the new Justice Party to bring together the former members of the Democratic Party. A simple and conservative sort, Gürsel became Turkey’s most popular figure, forbade display of his picture alongside Atatürk’s in government offices, rode about in an open Jeep touring rural communities, talking to the peasants almost as if they were his children (Time, 6 January 1961). He was successful with his personal interventions in reducing the number of execution verdicts from the Yassiada trials from 15 down to three. Gürsel’s plea for forgiveness and attempts along with several other world leaders for the reversal of the execution sentences and for the release of Adnan Menderes and two other ministers were rejected by the Junta. Of the National Unity Committee writes in his memoirs that, upon Cemal Gürsel’s intervention on the prevention of Menderes’ execution, the chief prosecutor of the tribunal, Altay Ömer Egesel, said:’Let us hurry! They will save him (Menderes)! , also arranging a contingency plan for conducting the execution in a Navy Destroyer in the event of a forgiveness operation in Imrali Island to save Menderes while, at the same time, placing a press release questioning the legal ability of Gürsel for an intervention. Adnan Menderes was hanged against the regulations. I was supposed to oversee the execution. The revolution tribunal’s chief prosecutor Egesel conducted the execution despite not being authorized. Ismet Inönü and Cemal Gürsel were already phoning for him (Menderes) not to be executed but the telecommunications’ office cut off the lines and Egesel made use of the (communication) gap to conduct the execution. Cemal Gürsel resisted pressure to continue military rule, was wounded as a result of a military assassination attempt on his life forgave the colonelwho? Who shot him, thwarted subsequent multiple military coup attempts, appointed the organizers of the coup to overseas posts and played an important role in the preparation of a new constitution and return to the democratic order of the Kemalist vision. Gürsel Hosting HM Queen Elizabeth II. Cemal Gürsel rescheduled and attended the previously cancelled Turkish and Scottish national football teams’ game in Ankara on 8 June 1960 (Turkey 4, Scotland 2) which was followed by a National Football Tournament, the Cemal Gürsel Cup, that helped boost the national morale in the post-coup weeks with finals in Istanbul on 3 July (Fenerbahçe 1, Galatasaray 0). He took an active role in extensive modernization of Turkish Armed Forces and the staunch defense of the free world and Europe during the cold war, in particular during the Cuban Missile Crisis. The declaration of independence of Cyprus according to the prior agreements and the deployment of a Turkish military unit to Cyprus took place in August 1960. He hosted the visit of Queen Elizabeth II to Ankara in early 1961 and the visit of the vice president Lyndon Johnson in 1962. Gürsel obtained, with the coordinated work of Sir Bernard Burrows, and granted permission of the ruling military National Unity Committee (NUC) for British military combat aircraft to overfly Turkish airspace on their way to support Kuwait, which was under threat of invasion by Iraq in July 1961. When questioned by a German journalist regarding his intentions on becoming the next president upon proposal of the interim parliament, Cemal Gürsel responded that he was ready to serve only if asked by the nation, not by the interim house. He neither put his own candidacy forward for the presidency nor lobbied for his election or against any other candidate in any way. He offered his endorsement of candidacy of several high rank academicians in Medicine and Sciences in Ankara for both the interim prime minister and future president positions. Gürsel placed a special emphasis on participatory democracy with the promotion of the full interests of the nation’s minorities, appointing Turkish Citizen ethnic leaders Hermine Kalustyan of Armenian, Kaludi Laskari of Greek and Erol Dilek of Jewish origin as his “Deputy Representatives of Head of State” and the full members of the interim House of Representatives. The editor of Shalom, Avram Leyon, accompanied him on his travels and foreign state functions. He re-established the freedom of speech that was overwhelmingly taken away from the media organs and from the press by the previous cabinet. The constitution, which brought for the first time a full text of civil and political rights under constitutional protection along with an improved system of checks and balances in Turkish history, was approved by a referendum held on 10 October 1961. With the establishment of the first Constitutional Court that created a new paradigm shift by scrutinizing the parliamentary rulings as the “checks” organ in 1961 and the addition of a Senate to the parliament, the Turkish Grand National Assembly was re-opened after the general elections, nominated and voted him as the fourth president of Turkey. Journalist Parliamentarian Cihat Baban claims in his book, The Gallery of Politics (Politika Galerisi) that Cemal Gürsel told him We may solve all troubles if Süleyman Demirel becomes the head of the Justice Party (Adalet Partisi). If I succeed in this, I will be happy.. Demirel was elected Chairman at the second grand party convention on 28 November 1964. The President of the Republic of Turkey Cemal Gürsel assigned the mandate to form and serve as the Prime Minister of the new government to Ismet Inönü in November 1961, June 1962 and December 1963, to Senator Suat Hayri Ürgüplü on February 1965 and, following the general elections, to Suleyman Demirel of Justice Party in October 1965. With the reduction of tensions between the West and the Soviet bloc, Gürsel sought improved relations for his country’s population of 27.8 million with the Soviet Union, such as the initiation of a telephone line agreement, as with the other members of the Western alliance while initiating new credit agreements with the US and the UK as well as bilateral technical and investment relations with Germany in 1960s. The atomic reactor in Istanbul became operational in 1962 along with his establishment of the first Research and State Library of the government in two years after his administration started. He promoted the grant of the freedom of and the legal rights to form unions and to go on strike in the country. Turkish Universities gained autonomous independence by law for the first time upon the legislation he passed. Cemal Gürsel granted a presidential pardon for the life sentences of the previous president Celal Bayar and the former chief of general staff Rustu Erdelhun whose prior execution sentence was also revoked by the National Unity Committee upon Gürsel’s appeals. He initiated the new era of planned economy in Turkey, formed a State Institute of Statistics, launched the State Planning Organization (DPT) that implemented “The First 5-Years Development Plan”, arranged re-entry of the Turkish Republic in the United Nations Security Council in 1961 and moved Turkey, through his close and personal diplomatic dialogues with Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer, into the direction of European Union membership with the Ankara Agreement, signed with France, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, Italy and Luxembourg in 1963, resulting in associate membership the following year and a large Turkish workforce migration to Germany and Western Europe to assist their postwar industrial development. When a Cypriot leader who was exiled out of the UK previously in 1956 on the basis of his struggle for Cypriot independence from the British rule, wanted in November 1963 to amend the basic articles of the 1960 constitution, communal violence ensued and Turkey, Great Britain and Greece, the guarantors of the agreements which had led to Cyprus’ independence, wanted to send a NATO force to the island under the command of General Young. Due to the continued ethnic violence between the Cypriot Turks and Cypriot Greeks, President Gürsel ordered warning flights and subsequent continuous air assaults by the Turkish Air Force against the island which continued between 7 and 10 August 1964, ending with the fulfilment of the military objectives of Turkey, and the invitation to calm by Nikita Khrushchev of USSR. Cemal Gürsel reformed the “Teskilat-i Mahsusa”, the “Special Organization” of clandestine security services to a modern National Intelligence Agency in response to and preparation against escalating international terrorism trends in 1963. He paved the way to Middle Eastern countries and Pakistan to concentrate on economic and cultural matters of mutual interest and Ankara recognized Syria following the breakup of the short-lived United Arab Republic in 1961, further reestablishing diplomatic relations with Egypt in 1965. In July 1964, Pakistani President Ayub Khan, Turkish President Cemal Gürsel, and Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran announced in Istanbul the establishment of the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD) organization to promote transportation and joint economic projects also envisioning Afghanistan and possibly Indonesia joining at some time in the future. He granted asylum to the political dissidents Ayatollah Khoumeini of Iran and Molla Barzani of Iraq. Gürsel, 40 years after the foundation of the Republic, launched the first radio broadcasting station of Eastern Anatolia within the centrally located province of Erzurum, where Ankara and Istanbul radios’ transmissions were not received. He brought the Microwave Telecommunications Network into operation increasing telephone and teletype capacity along with a High-Frequency Radio Link connecting London and Ankara with Rawalpindi, Karachi, Tehran and Istanbul. He laid the foundations of the new agricultural and structural development plans for the south-eastern Anatolian regions in early 1960s for the first time. With his directive, The Holy Relics from the Prophets Abraham, Moses, Joseph, David and Muhammad, including the oldest Qur’an in existence from the 7th Century were put on display from their storage rooms within the Topkapi Palace for public viewing for the first time on 31 August 1962. Gürsel added the first Ministry of Culture and Tourism to the cabinet. In a parallel effort of promoting the country’s touristic popularity in the West, Topkapi, the movie version of the book by Eric Ambler that had been commissioned for the same purpose, was shot in Paris and Istanbul and was introduced with success. Similarly, one of the favorite books of John F. Kennedy, Ian Fleming’s From Russia with Love was shot in Istanbul as the second James Bond movie, to promote the touristic popularity of Turkey, with his keen interest. The Directorate of Religious Affairs network of the country was founded with his directive and became operational on 22 June 1965. He started the new procedure of returning the law proposals presented for the President’s approval back to the Parliamentary re-discussions in 1963. Cemal Gürsel founded The National Security Council (MGK) as well as the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) in 1963, appointing Professor Cahit Arf as its first director, officially charging TUBITAK primarily with governmental advisory duty by legislation. In addition to the foundation of the Turkish Radio and Television (TRT) organization as a government agency in 1964 that brought television broadcasting to Turkey for the first time under his administration, the opening of The School of Press and Broadcasting at the College of Political Sciences in Ankara followed in November 1965. The country’s new initiative of Planning of Population Growth Control was put in effect in 1965. The production of the first domestic Turkish automobile, the Devrim (Revolution), took place with Cemal Gürsel’s directive which sparked the initiation of an automotive industry in the republic in the following few years. The first use of a computer in the country, iron and steel mass production growth, the thermic power plant and a petrol pipeline structuring took place during his presidency. Cemal Gürsel refused remuneration for his Head of State and subsequent Presidential positions and made his and his family’s living with his retired general’s salary, meeting their own expenses during their life in the Presidential Palace in Çankaya, Ankara. Because of a paralysis that started in early 1961 and progressed quickly in 1966, on 2 February Cemal Gürsel was flown to the Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington, D. On the private airplane “BlueBird” sent by US President Lyndon B. One week later, he fell into a coma there after suffering a series of new paralytic strokes. The government decided he return to Turkey on 24 March. President Johnson travelled by helicopter from the White House to Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, near Washington, D. To pay his respects to President Cemal Gürsel on his departure to home, In addition to issuing the following statement’Our distinguished friend, President Cemal Gursel of Turkey, came to the United States on 2 February for medical treatment. There was hope that new therapeutic procedures only recently developed in this country would be useful in treating his illness of several years. We were initially encouraged by his progress at Walter Reed Hospital, only to be shocked by the news on 8 February that his health had suffered a grave new blow. Our best talent, coupled with the skill of the eminent Turkish doctors who accompanied the President, was exerted to the utmost in the hope that the President might return to his home in fully restored health. We are saddened that this hope was not to be realized. We have been deeply honored to have President Gürsel come to our country to seek medical treatment. With a report of a medical committee by Gülhane Military Hospital in Ankara, the parliament ruled on 28 March 1966 that his presidency be terminated due to ill health in accordance with the constitution. He left behind no directives or last will. He was laid to rest at the “Freedom Martyrs Memorial” section in the yard of the mausoleum of Atatürk. His body was transferred on 27 August 1988 to a permanent burial place in the newly built Turkish State Cemetery. Among all of his achievements and great modesty in his down-to-earth plain demeanor, he tried to place the most emphasis on the need for a well-educated youth and a hard-working population with high standards of ethics for a westernized democratic progress in Atatürk’s tradition (commentary by Imran Oktem, Chief Supreme Court Justice – Yargitay, 1966). His portrait as a statesman and soldier remained next to Atatürk’s in most homes in Turkey for a long time. Erzurum Cemal Gürsel Stadium, some schools and streets were named after him. The developments during his term were described as the “Turkish Revolution” which was celebrated annually on 27 May as the Constitution Day until 1981. In 2002, a commemorative coin was released for the same. In 2008, the movie The Cars of Revolution was released in his memory. I took over the administration of the state to stop the tragic course of events. (Cemal Gürsel, radio address on the evening of 27 May 1960). The network was ready. I personally did not want the army to intervene and had been stopping the attempts (of takeover) of my younger friends. Now my only goal is to reinstate an administration built on the principles of justice and ethics. Cemal Gürsel, An interview. Cumhuriyet, 16 July 1960. Those who follow Atatürk will not be left behind. (Cemal Gürsel, from the address on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of Atatürk’s death, 10 November 1963). General Gursel may be described as the father of the second Turkish Republic similar to Atatürk being the father of modern Turkey. At a time of deep division, Gursel earned and maintained the respect of the Turkish Nation that regarded him as the symbol of national unity. When he passed away, he had the identity of the trusted father of the nation. Bernard Lewis, 15 September 1966. A few days before the coup, it was known that the coup was imminent but General Cemal Gursel was dismissed as a non-political general. No leading role by General Cemal Gursel was determined despite the foreknowledge of the plot. The CIA; The Inside Story by Andrew Tully, pages 51, 53. On 27 May, he (Cemal Gursel) was hurriedly requested to come (from his residence in Izmir) to the capital (Ankara) to assume the leadership of National Unity Committee. The Turkish Revolution, Aspects of Military politics. The Brookings Institution, 1963. When 27 May revolt occurred, Cemal Gürsel was not a participant. He was invited to become the head due to the circumstances and he willingly accepted. (Burhan Felek, Milliyet, Page 2, 18 September 1971). General Gürsel was brought into the NUC chairmanship by the revolution team when he was in retirement preparation. In actuality he was in the position of a chairman found in last minute with a hurried search. He never was the responsible leader for a true leader is not to be appointed but is self-appointed. (By a leading member of the NUC). One of the core players of the coup, Orhan Erkanli told that they revolted on 27 May without knowing what to do on 28 May. No one, including Cemal Gürsel knew who and how many would be forming the NUC. In actuality, even Cemal Gürsel was brought in later. Years of Ismet Pasha of our Democracy, 1960-61 by Metin Toker, page 25. It is now known that the coup was the result of years of planning on the part of conspirators, a number of radical colonels and ranks below in their early forties. He (Cemal Gürsel) was not involved in the details of the organization of the coup d’état. When the coup had succeeded, he was brought to Ankara. Turkey, A modern History by Erik Zurcher. We just see that a few very important lines in his letter (to the Minister of Defence) had been censored. That means we are going without learning the true history, without knowing who knows what facts and what true pictures of turning points. (Çetin Altan, Author, Journalist, September 2006). An extremely important document that sheds light on the past has been revealed. Testimony from eyewitnesses at the time helped make known that the letter had been modified after 27 May, but the location of the original letter was unknown. This important document adds a new dimension to the 27 May revolution. We have come face to face with a new document that changes our written history. It was my greatest wish to obtain just such a document; not for my own satisfaction, but for my father, to prove this reality and obtain genuine evidence. I was thrilled when I heard about this. (Mr Aydin Menderes, Author, the Son of Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, September 2006). Adnan Menderes was hung against the regulations. The revolution tribunal’s chief prosecutor Altay Egesel conducted the execution despite not being authorized. Ismet Inönü and Cemal Gürsel were already phoning for him (Adnan Menderes) not to be executed but the telecommunications’ office cut off the lines and Egesel made use of the (communication) gap to conduct the execution. Mehmet Feyyat, District Attorney General, Istanbul Province Prosecutor General 1961, The Administrator of the Imrali Prison, The Lawyer of the Year, Senator. (Reported by Özkan GÜVEN, STAR Newspaper, 13 November 2006 with a summary in Turkish at Law in the Capitol). Where are we now and where are the nations such as Portugal, Greece and Spain with whom we departed for the competition of development in 1960s? In one word, an embarrassment. (Hasan Cemal, Milliyet, October 2006). We built an automobile with the mentality of the West and we forgot to put gasoline in it with the mentality of the East. (Cemal Gürsel, President, on the Anniversary of the Turkish Republic, 29 October 1963). 1962 attempted coup in Turkey. “Çankaya’nin First Lady’leri”. Retrieved 14 February 2019. “Transport of Cemal Gürsel’s body to the State Cemetery” (in Turkish). Press Agency of the Turkish Government website. Retrieved 12 November 2006. Song of The Pharaohs – The Kings of the East and the West. Analysis of political scene on 26 May 1960, research article (in Turkish). General Gursel hosting HM Queen Elizabeth’s first visit to Turkey, Ankara, 1961[permanent dead link]. The full translated text of Cemal Gursel’s letter The research copy of the Turkish original. Cemal Gursel’s Memorandum Revealed. His video and photographs at the President’s Web Page. Cemal Gursel with Vice President Lyndon Johnson in Ankara, 1962 (Anatolian Agency Album). 60’s video montage. Presidential Messages search Cemal Gursel. Text of Ankara Agreement. The movie “The Cars of Revolution”. His photos in LIFE Magazine[permanent dead link]. Video footage of massacres and offensives against Turkish Community. Cable from US Embassy reflecting collective efforts of Cemal Gursel, Ismet Inonu and his entire cabinet and Gen Cevdet Sunay to stop executions. Commander of the Third Army. Commander of the Turkish Army. Minister of National Defense. Prime Minister of Turkey. The 1962 attempted coup in Turkey (also known as the February 22 Incident) was led by the Commander of the Turkish Military Academy, Staff Colonel tr:Talat Aydemir and his associates, who were opposed to the democratically elected government in Turkey. [1][2][3] Despite taking control of much of Ankara, the coup leaders quickly realised they could not prevail and surrendered without any loss of life occurring. Talat Aydemir went on to lead a further coup attempt in 1963. The Armed Forces Union. June – July 1961. January – February 1962. False alarm, 20 February 1962. Nevertheless there were groups of junior officers who felt that the direction taken by the MBK was wrong, particularly after it had dismissed “the fourteen” hardline coup supporters on 13 November 1960. Following the dismissal of the fourteen hardliners, the High Command continued to steadily remove officers whom it regarded as unreliable, and to make new appointments of those who would not oppose the return to democracy. While the process of handing over power from the army to the civilian authorities was underway, there were several indications of growing dissent. [7][8] One was the creation of the Armed Forces Union (Turkish: Silahli Kuvvetler Birligi) late in 1960 as a voice for officers pressing for a more radical policy. Its membership and aims were unclear and its existence at the time was little known outside the armed forces themselves. [5]:139[9][6]. Tension between the MBK and the Armed Forces Union first became public in June 1961, when airforce commander Irfan Tansel was removed from his military post and sent to Washington DC as an adviser to Turkey’s military mission. There were rumours of a number of other dismissals and appointments, and Talat Aydemir was one of a group of officers who met in Ankara to agree a six-point protocol which they sent to the General Staff, demanding the reinstatement of Tansel, the cancellation of other dismissals and promotions, and no future interference from the MBK in military appointments. [9] A squadron of jet fighters flew over Ankara to emphasise the seriousness of the Armed Forces Union’s intentions. Faced with this show of determination, the MBK agreed to the demands of the Armed Forces Union, but decided to also to issue a statement, through the General Staff, to all members of the armed forces. This statement, issued on 28 June 1961, offered assurances that the planned civilian regime would not be able to take action against the coup leaders of 1960, and that the sentences of the Yassiada trials would be carried out promptly. In July, the junior officers’ concerns were increased when, in the referendum, the new military-approved constitution was only approved by 61.7% of voters. [12] Following this, on 25 August 1961 members of the Armed Forces Union were required to swear an oath to support the work of the MBK. Prime Minister Ismet Inönü (1964). In the October 1961 elections the Republican People’s Party failed to win an outright majority and incoming prime minister Ismet Inönü was obliged to form a coalition government with the newly formed Justice Party, which effectively reconstituted the Democrat Party that had been removed from power by the 1960 coup. [13] Overall, the majority of votes had gone to parties that claimed to be successors of the Democrats. The general election result prompted Talat Aydemir and his associates to begin mobilising their supporters to use force to prevent the return to civilian rule. [14][15]:178 On 21 October 1961 a large meeting was held at the Turkish Military Academy in Istanbul, following which 10 Generals and 28 Colonels signed what became known as the October Protocol. [9][6] According to this protocol, the military was to intervene before the newly elected Grand National Assembly of Turkey was convened – no later than 25 October 1961. However, those who signed it had no means of implementing it without the active support of senior officers. Instead of supporting the junior officers, the army High Command intervened to oblige the leaders of the four largest parties to sign the Çankaya Protocol, guaranteeing the continuation of the reforms instituted after the coup, granting immunity to those who had led it, and agreeing not to stand any candidates for the presidency against Cemal Gürsel. [6][17][18]:62 The junior officers were unable to do anything to prevent the recently-elected coalition government from taking power. Once the civilian government was installed, the concerns of Aydemir and his colleagues seemed well-founded. Politicians who had been removed from office by the 1960 coup were preparing to make a rapid return to public life: the newly formed Justice Party began examining possible grounds for the pardon of those still held in detention after the Yassiada trials. A particular flashpoint was the funeral of the Democrat Party’s Minister of National Education, Tevfik Ileri which saw young people protesting against the coup for the first time and demanding the release of political prisoners. A grouping of military officers known as the “Extended Command Council” (Turkish: Genisletilmis Komuta Konseyi) met at the General Staff Headquarters on 19 January 1962 to discuss a proposal from Chief of the General Staff Cevdet Sunay that they should abandon any thought of staging a military intervention and instead rally behind the government of Ismet Inönü. The Generals and Commanders at that meeting supported Sunay’s proposal but Talat Aydemir and the Colonels who attended stated that they did not agree and that a military intervention was necessary. However, without the support of the Generals, especially the Chief of the General Staff, they would have been acting outside the chain of command if they tried to move on their own. Prime Minister Inönü decided to try and defuse the tensions within the army by visiting military units in Istanbul and Ankara. He first visited the 66th Division Command and the War Academies in Istanbul. At the units he went to, he advised the officers to remain calm and patient, making clear that he did not support any action by them. [19] This undermined the plans of those officers who believed that they should seize power in order to offer him their support. On February 5, 1962, he went to visit the Military Academy in Ankara, and no one received him other than the commanders and the inspection unit. On 9 February Lieutenant General tr:Refik Tulga convened a meeting in Balmumcu, Istanbul, that was attended by 59 officers. Thirty seven of those attending, including Talat Aydemir, agreed on the need to carry out a military intervention before 28 February. [6][19][21] Cevdet Sunay however refused to support overthrowing the government as long as Inönü, Atatürk’s deputy, remained prime minister. Instead, Sunay alerted Inönü to what Talat Aydemir and the other junior officers were planning. On February 18, 1962, Sunay also summoned the Corps Commanders of the 1st Army, the Governor of Istanbul, Lieutenant General Refik Tulga, the Commander of the War Academies Brigadier General tr:Faruk Güventürk and the Commander of the War Fleet to Ankara. These generals had previously met with Talat Aydemir and other radical colonels, and made clear that they would not agree to support a new coup. On February 19, 1962, Sunay also summoned Talat Aydemir, Necati Ünsalan and Selçuk Atakan to the General Staff Headquarters. Air Force Commander Irfan Tansel, Land Forces Commander Muhittin Önür and Gendarmerie General Commander Abdurrahman Doruk Pasha were waiting for them here, but they were still unable to persuade the colonels to give up their plans. [9] There now seemed no alternative but for the government and the High Command to take action against them. Rumours began to spread through the army that Talat Aydemir and his associates were going to stage their coup on the night of February 20-21. In response, officers in the Etimesgut Armored Units School First Armoured Division Tank Battalion placed their troops on alert. Likewise, sections of the 229th Infantry Regiment and the Guard Regiment also prepared to join the coup. By the following morning it was clear that the rumour was unfounded. Cevdet Sunay was enraged when he heard what had happened the previous night. He summoned Talat Aydemir and two other officers to General Staff Headquarters and advised them that they would immediately be transferred to new posts away from the capital, although Aydemir denied any wrongdoing or involvement in the previous night’s events. At a meeting of the General Staff later on February 21, and orders were given for the transfer of officers causing unrest to units in the East. The list of names included including Selçuk Atakan, Emin Arat, Ihsan Erkan, Haldun Doran and Sükrü Ilkin (commander of the Presidential Guard Regiment) as well as Talat Aydemir[20][22]. When Aydemir learned that the transfer order had been issued, he gathered about 600 recent graduates of the Military Academy and made a speech to them at 3pm, explaining the events of recent days. In his speech, Aydemir said. The 1960 coup failed to reach its goal. Parliament is not working. The army is being criticised. Now commanders are sent East to break up the forces at the ready. Our plans are ready, the army is with us. Our password is’Halaskar’ and our sign is’Fedailer’… If this action does not succeed, I will commit suicide. [13][4][19]. The expressions chosen as passwords and signs alluded to Enver Pasha and the 1913 Ottoman coup d’état that took place outside the chain of command. The graduates agreed to support him and prepared to fight. The units that had responded to the false rumour on 19th February did not join in this time, as they had new officers in command. Nevertheless Aydemir sent tanks from Military Academy towards the Turkish Grand National Assembly. The government placed anti-tank guns around the building. Soldiers from the barracks in Polatli and Çubuk were called in to help break the siege, but all of the battalions called to suppress the coup sided with Talat Aydemir and declared their loyalty to him. On the morning of 22 February the battalion guarding the parliament building went over to the rebels units loyal to Aydemir were effectively in control of central Ankara, including the radio station. [21] Critically however, the Air Force remained loyal to the government, and this was to prove decisive. With unchallenged air superiority, Ismet Inönü’s government made preparations to bomb the Army War College with jets from the Murted airbase. Aydemir and his colleagues announced their aims as the dissolution of the Grand National Assembly, the resignation of the government and the passing of the administration to them through the suspension of the Constitution. At noon on February 22 Cihat Alpan was appointed to replace Sükrü Ilkin as commander of the Presidential Guard Regiment protecting the Çankaya Mansion. However, the cavalry group of the Guard Regiment under Major Fethi Gürcan detained Alpan and then found itself in control of President Cemal Gürsel, Prime Minister Inönü and several other ministers, Chief of General Staff Sunay and the force commanders, who were meeting inside the mansion at that time. [4] [23] Gürcan contacted Talat Aydemir and asked permission to arrest them all. Aydemir refused because he did not want his action to be seen as a coup, so he ordered Gürcan to release them all. [4] As he left the mansion, Inönü smiled and said Now they have lost. As soon as he left the Çankaya mansion, Inönü headed for the Airforce Command Building, where he met other party leaders as well as the Airforce commanders. The government’s plan was now for President Gürsel and Prime Minister Inönü to make conciliatory speeches over the radio to try and de-escalate the situation. Mediation was established through Ekrem Alican, the leader of the New Turkey Party and a relative of Talat Aydemir, but this made little progress. Cemal Gürsel departed for Murted air base. When Fethi Gürcan seized the radio’s transmitting station in Etimesgut with his troops, Inönü’s broadcasts stopped, but he was able to resume his addresses through the transmitter at Ankara Esenboga Airport a few hours later. In his messages, Inönü stressed that providing no blood was shed, Aydemir and the other soldiers supporting the coup would not be punished. He refused however to consider any of the demands the coup leaders had made. It became clear to Aydemir that no further units were intending to join him, that his forces were surrounded, and that the government, political parties and High Command were steadily regaining the upper hand. He ordered the tanks in central Ankara to withdraw. [21] On the evening of 22 February, the jets of the Air Force began to fly low over the Military Academy. At 1am in the morning of 23 February, Inönü sent Aydemir a written note confirming that there would be no punishments if he and his followers gave up. Shortly afterwards Aydemir called on his followers to lay down their arms and return to barracks while he himself surrendered. When Inönü entered the Grand National Assembly on February 23, he was given an unprecedented standing ovation from deputies of all parties, who expressed their gratitude and confidence in the armed forces. The students of the Military Academy were given a week’s early leave and the school was temporarily closed and Semih Sancar was appointed to head it in place of Talat Aydemir. Aydemir, Emin Arat, Dündar Seyhan and Turgut Alpagut were kept under guard for a while, but there were no arrests. Fourteen officers were transferred while Aydemir and 22 others were retired from the army. [14] Aydemir was arrested not for the attempted coup but for insulting Ismet Inönü and as detained in prison for just 9 days. [13] Inönü’s conciliatory approach avoided holding a number of trials that would have caused discord and embarrassment to a government working to restore calm and order following the return to civilian rule. Indeed, on 22 April Inönü managed to persuade the Turkish Grand National Assembly to pass an amnesty law that allowed them to return to the ranks. [24] There was a political cost – in return for agreeing to amnesty the coup officers, the Justice Party demanded the early release of Democrat Party prisoners held in Kayseri prison since the 1960 coup. In fact the attempted coup, the pardon debates and the ensuing the party conflicts overwhelmed Inönü, who resigned on 30 May 1962. Talat Aydemir continued to oppose the return to civilian rule and gave many interviews sharing his views in the months after his release. On May 20, 1963 he led a second attempted coup, and after this he was arrested, sentenced to death and executed. Gursel’s father was an officer of the Ottoman army so after the middle school he was graduated from Kuleli military highschool in Istanbul. He was even captured as a prisoner of war by the British for two years during a campaign in Palestine. He served in the army a total of 45 years. In 1958 Cemal Gursel became the commander of Turkish ground forces as a four-star general. Due to a memorandum he sent to the Minister of Defence, expressing his views on Adnan Menderes who, according to Gursel, should become the next president, he was suspended from his post and forced for an early retirement. But, since he was a popular army figure, he was chosen as the leader of a military coup on 27th of May 1960 run by young army officers, which overthrew the government of Adnan Menderes. After the military court on Yassiada island, Gursel tried to stop the execution of Menderes on Imrali island, but no avail. Cemal Gürsel resisted attempts to continue military rule. He was elected as the fourth President of the Republic in 1961 and played an important role in the preparation of a new Constitution and return back to the democracy after the coup. Because of his illness which progressed quickly and took him into a coma, his presidency was terminated by the Parliament, and then he was succeeded by Cevdet Sunay on March of 1966. Cemal Gursel died of apoplexy on September 14th of the same year, in Ankara. He’s now buried at the Turkish State Cemetery. Cemal Gürsel was a Turkish army officer, and the fourth President of Turkey. Cemal Gürsel was born on October 13, 1895 in Erzurum, Turkey. After the elementary school in Ordu and the military middle school in Erzincan, Cemal Gürsel graduated from the Kuleli military high school in Istanbul. He attended the Turkish Military College and graduated in 1929 as a staff officer. Cemal Gürsel served in the Army for 45 years. Cemal Gürsel was kept as a prisoner of war in Egypt until 6 October 1920. Cemal Gürsel was promoted colonel in 1940. The day after the coup, four-star general Cemal Gürsel was declared the commander in chief, Head of state, Prime minister and Minister of Defense of the 24th government on 30 May 1960. Cemal Gürsel freed 200 students and nine newsmen, and licensed 14 banned newspapers to start publishing again. He fetched ten law professors, a law postgraduate student as their assistant, from Istanbul and Ankara Universities to help draft a new constitution on 27 May, right after he arrived in Ankara. Cemal Gürsel hosted the visit of Queen Elizabeth II to Ankara in early 1961 and the visit of the vice president Lyndon Johnson in 1962. President Johnson went by helicopter from the White House to Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, near Washington, D. To pay his respects to President Cemal Gürsel on his departure to home. In addition to issuing the following statement Our distinguished friend, President Cemal Gursel of Turkey, came to the United States on 2 February for medical treatment. A simple and conservative sort, Cemal Gürsel became Turkey’s most popular figure, forbade display of his picture alongside Atatürk’s in government offices, rode about in an open Jeep touring rural communities, talking to the peasants almost as if they were his children. He was successful with his personal interventions in reducing the number of execution verdicts from the Yassiada tribunals from 15 down to three. Cemal Gürsel promoted the grant of the freedom of and the legal rights to form unions and to go on strike in the country. Cemal Gürsel initiated the new era of planned economy in Turkey, formed a State Institute of Statistics, launched the State Planning Organization (DPT) that implemented “The First 5-Years Development Plan”, arranged re-entry of the Turkish Republic in the United Nations Security Council in 1961 and moved Turkey, through his close and personal diplomatic dialogues with Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer, into the direction of European Union membership with the Ankara Agreement, signed with France, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, Italy and Luxembourg in 1963, resulting in associate membership the following year and a large Turkish workforce migration to Germany and Western Europe to assist their postwar industrial development. Cemal Gürsel, 40 years after the foundation of the Republic, launched the first radio broadcasting station of Eastern Anatolia within the centrally located province of Erzurum, where Ankara and Istanbul radios’ transmissions were not received. Cemal Gürsel added the first Ministry of Culture and Tourism to the cabinet. Quotations: I took over the administration of the state to stop the tragic course of events. Cemal Gürsel, as an easy-going and fatherly figure with a fine sense of humor, was well liked both nationally and in NATO circles, and had earned the respect and confidence of both the nation and the armed forces with his professional knowledge and demeanor. Quotes from others about the person. Professor Bernard Lewis: General Gursel may be described as the father of the second Turkish Republic similar to Atatürk being the father of modern Turkey. Cemal Gürsel was married, in 1927, to Melahat, the daughter of the chief engineer on the Ottoman cruiser Hamidiye. Cemal Gürsel was born in Erzurum in 1895. After receiving primary education in Ordu, he continued his education as a military student in Erzincan and Istanbul. Cemal Bey who participated in the Çanakkale (Dardanelles) Battle between 1915 and 1917 as an Artillery Officer also took part on the Syrian and Palestinian fronts of the World War I. He fought in all the Western fronts of the War of Independence. After graduating from the Military Academy in 1929, he was appointed as the Commander of the Land Forces in 1958. He resigned from the military on 3 May 1960 and left for Izmir. Immediately after the military coup on 27 May 1960, he headed the National Unity Committee that was formed by the military. After the execution of the former Prime Minister Adnan Menderes and two of his ministers in the aftermath of the military coup, he played an important role in the formation of the new Constitution and transition to democracy again. In accordance with the Constitution that was approved in a referendum, he was elected as the fourth President of Turkey by the Turkish Grand National Assembly (TBMM) that was formed in the 10 October 1961 elections. Due to the deterioration in his health conditions in 1966, his Presidency was terminated by the TBMM in accordance with the Constitution. Cemal Gürsel who got married to Melahat Hanim in 1927 and had a child with her died on 14 September 1966. Military man, statesman, 4th president of Republic of Turkey. June 10th, 1895, Erzurum – D. September 14th, 1966, Ankara. The son of a military family, he studied the primary school in Ordu. After completing the secondary school in Erzincan; he studied at Istanbul Kuleli Military High School. During his senior year, the 1st World War began. Because of the war, his education was interrupted on October 16th, 1914 and he started to serve in 4th Army Command as lieutenant. He fought in the Battle of Dardanelles between 1915 and 1917 as the artillery officer. He was on the battles on the Palestine and Syrian fronts. He participated in almost all the battles on the Western Front during the Independence War. He got promotion and became the captain on 1st September 1922. He entered War Academy on 1st October 1926 and graduated as a staff officer in 1929. In 1927, he married Melahat Hanim and they had one son, Muzaffer. Starting from 1946, he was promoted to the Brigadier General and undertook commands of divisions, corps and the army. In 1958, he was promoted to the rank of General and became the Commander of the Land Forces. Before the May 27th 1960 Revolution; while he was still a Commander of the Land Forces; he visited Ethem Menderes, who was the Minister of Defense on 2nd May 1960. During his visit, he reflected his personal views to the Minister of Defense, accordingly to the government, expressing his support to the Prime Minister Adnan Menderes and a letter reflecting his belief that the Prime Minister should replace the President. This resulted in his suspension from his post, forcing an early retirement on 3rd May 1960. A farewell letter by him, advocating and urging the army to stay out of politics, was forwarded to all units of the armed forces at the time of his departure on leave for Izmir. After the coup d’état on 27 May 1960, which was organized and conducted by army officers at the rank of colonels and below, Cemal Gürsel, was chosen as the chairman of the military coup and by the National Unity Committee. During his position, he survived an assassination attempt, but he was wounded. He and other 13 members of the National Unity Committee, including Türkes, were sent to abroad for an official duty. While he was the chairman of National Unity Committee, he launched the Erzurum Radio. Gürsel directed the retired general Ragip Gümüspala to bring the Demokrat Party members together to form the Adalet Party. By virtue of the 1961 Constitution, which was prepared by the Constituent Assembly and presented for a referendum held on 10th October 1961, he was nominated and gained the majority of the votes at Turkish Grand National Assembly to be the fourth president of Turkey on 21st October 1961. He initiated the new era of planned economy in Turkey and formed a State Institute of Statistics, launched the State Planning Organization. He promoted the legal rights to form unions, to go on strike in the country and to enact the law of collective bargaining. The establishment of National Security Council (MIT), the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the School of Press and Broadcasting were established during his presidency. He also paved the way for the planning to develop the Southeastern Turkey, the formation of Turkish Radio and Television Association (TRT) (1964), the first use of a computer in the country, the establishment of the first State Research Library, as well as the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) along with many other “firsts”. The production of the first domestic Turkish automobile, “Devrim” T. Revolution, took place with Cemal Gürsel’s directive. Because of a disease that started in 1966, Cemal Gürsel was sent abroad. In accordance with the Constitution, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey ruled that his presidency be terminated due to his ill health on 28th March 1966. When he died, he was laid to rest at the “Freedom Martyrs Memorial” section in the yard of the Atatürk’s mausoleum. His body was later transferred to the Turkish State Cemetery. Excelling in the battles of the Final Offensive, he was awarded the Medal of Independence. A documentary film was made about him by because of the manufacture of the “Devrim” automobile. On 27 May 1960, General Cemal Gürsel led a coup d’etat that removed President Celal Bayar, prime minister Adnan Menderes, and his cabinet from power and dissolved the parliament. Several members of the Menderes government were charged with various crimes ranging from misuse of public funds to abrogation of the Constitution and high treason. Arraigned before a joint civilian – military tribunal, a number of those charged were sentenced to prison terms and former Premier Menderes was executed along with two other ministers. The 1960 coup occurred against a backdrop of escalating tension between the government and opposition that threatened to erupt into civil war. First elected in 1950, Menderes built on the liberalization measures that followed Atatürk’s death in 1938, including a relaxation of laws that restricted the role of minorities and Islam. Confronted with strong Kemalist opposition, the government repeatedly passed legislation designed to restrict freedom of the press to print material “designed to damage the political or financial prestige of the state” or “belittling persons holding official positions”. By 1959, growing hostilities between government and opposition supporters fuelled by a polarization of public opinion led to violent clashes. In April 1960, a series of large-scale student demonstrations paralyzed university campuses and led to bloody confrontations with police forces. The imposition of martial law in Istanbul and Ankara on 1st of May and the confinement of demonstrators in detention camps failed to restore civil order. Although public unrest had been growing over the previous year, the trigger for the coup appears to have been the 1st of May decision to use the armed forces in an effort to regain control of the situation. While some senior officers supported the government, Istanbul’s martial law commander announced that his troops were authorized to fire on “even the smallest public assembly” – others were not united behind this policy. One week after the declaration of martial law, the commander of land forces, General Gürsel, was placed on a compulsory leave of absence. In his farewell message, Gürsel urged his troops to steel themselves against the greedy political atmosphere now blowing through the country. Such sentiments were clearly shared by others as well. Former President and Atatürk’s colleague, Ismet Inönü, warned that “an oppressive regime can never be sure of the army”. In a 27 May broadcast, Cemal Gürsel rejected dictatorship and announced that the government had been overthrown to help establish an honest and just democratic order and to give over the administration of the state into the hands of the nation. In a press conference on 28 May, Gürsel emphasized that the purpose and the aim of the coup is to bring the country with all speed to a fair, clean and solid democracy… I want to transfer power and the administration of the nation to the free choice of the people. That same day, the military-dominated cabinet issued a policy statement promising respect for human rights and the abolition of all laws contrary to the Kemalist tradition. The military dominated the political scene until October 1965. During that time, a series of conservative coalition government led by former President Inönü held office. When free elections were once again permitted, Süleyman Demirel led his Justice Party (Adalet Parti – AP) to victory. Demirel remained in office until the Turkish military forced his resignation in March 1971. This item is in the category “Collectibles\Autographs\Historical”. The seller is “memorabilia111″ and is located in this country: US. 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  • Country/Region of Manufacture: Turkey
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AUTOGRAPH TURKEY RARE PRESIDENT Cemal Gürsel COUP SIGNED CARD ORIGINAL VINTAGE

AUTOGRAPH TURKEY RARE PRESIDENT Cemal Gürsel COUP SIGNED CARD ORIGINAL VINTAGE

autograph
AUTOGRAPH TURKEY RARE PRESIDENT Cemal Gürsel COUP SIGNED CARD ORIGINAL VINTAGE
AUTOGRAPH TURKEY RARE PRESIDENT Cemal Gürsel COUP SIGNED CARD ORIGINAL VINTAGE

AUTOGRAPH TURKEY RARE PRESIDENT Cemal Gürsel COUP SIGNED CARD ORIGINAL VINTAGE
A VERY RARE VINTAGE ORIGINAL AUTOGRAPH OF. Former President of Turkey ON APPROXIMATELY 3X4 CARD. Cemal Gürsel Turkish: d? Sæl; 13 October 1895 – 14 September 1966 was a Turkish army general who became the fourth President of Turkey after a coup. [citation needed] After the elementary school in Ordu and the military middle school in Erzincan, he graduated from the Kuleli military high school in Istanbul. He was a popular figure and was therefore nicknamed “Cemal Aga” (big brother Cemal) since his childhood school years and onwards all his life. Gürsel served in the Army for 45 years. During World War I, he participated in the Battle of Çanakkale in Dardanelles, Gallipoli as a lieutenant with the First Battery of the 12th Artillery Regiment in 1915 and received the War Medal. He later fought at the Palestine and Syria fronts in 1917 and became a prisoner of war by the British while suffering malaria during his command of the 5th Battery of the 41st Regiment on 19 September 1918. Gürsel was kept as a prisoner of war in Egypt until 6 October 1920. During his presidency much later, when interviewed by the foreign press as to why he had not learned English during his captivity, he somewhat regretfully recalled that he was so frustrated to be a captive, he protested and studied French in the British camp instead. He was promoted for gallantry in the First Division excelling in the battles of Second Inönü, Eskisehir and Sakarya, and was later awarded the Medal of Independence by the first Parliament for his combat service in the Final Offensive. Gürsel was married, in 1927, to Melahat, the daughter of the chief engineer on the Ottoman cruiser Hamidiye. From this marriage, a son Özdemir was born. The couple adopted a daughter Türkan. Cemal Gürsel attended the Turkish Military College and graduated in 1929 as a staff officer. He was promoted colonel in 1940. He was made a brigadier general in 1946 and made commander of the 65th Division. He was later the commander of the 12th Division, the 18th Corps commander, and commander of the 2nd Interior Tasks District. Made Lieutenant general in 1953, was general in 1957, being appointed Commander of 3rd Army. Service included chief of intelligence, and he was appointed as the Commander of Land Forces in 1958 when he was commanding an army. Gürsel, as an easy-going and fatherly figure with a fine sense of humor, was well liked both nationally and in NATO circles, and had earned the respect and confidence of both the nation and the armed forces with his professional knowledge and demeanor. A patriotic memorandum he sent on 3 May 1960 to the Minister of Defense in an effort to establish checks and balances on ongoing affairs, reflecting his personal views in continuation of the chat they had the night before, expressing his support to the prime minister Adnan Menderes and belief that the Prime Minister should replace the President with immediate effect to bolster a much needed national unity, resulted in his suspension from his post, forcing early retirement instead of becoming the next Chief of the Turkish General Staff. A farewell letter by him, advocating and urging the army to stay out of politics, was forwarded to all units of the armed forces at the time of his departure on leave. Cemal Gürsel’s statement read:’Always hold high the honor of the army and the uniform you wear. Protect yourselves from the current ambitious and harmful political atmosphere in the country. Stay away from the politics at all cost. This is of utmost importance to your honor, the army’s might and the future of the country. He went to Izmir where he became the president of the Anti-Communism Association of Turkey. See also: 1960 Turkish coup d’état. A coup d’état organised and conducted by army officers at the rank of colonels and below took place without the participation or leadership of Cemal Gürsel on 27 May 1960 after continuing civilian and academia unrests throughout the country. It is rumored that four-star general Ragip Gümüspala, the Commander of the Third Army based in Eastern Anatolia, gave an ultimatum to the rebelling officers that if they did not have a general appointed as their head, the Third Army would attack to take over the capital and the administration of the country, thereby forcing the rebel group to find a senior officer over them. Because of his immense popularity among the public and military ranks, Gürsel was subsequently chosen by the revolutionaries overnight and brought into the chairmanship of the military coup and became, as of 2015, the only leader in the world put into power by a military takeover who had previously had no role in its planning or execution. He, while still in his pajamas, was escorted to Ankara in the military C-47 transport plane by a captain who was the youngest officer of the radical coup team who that by that time had already sent President Celal Bayar, Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, Chief of General Staff Rüstü Erdelhun and some other members of the ruling Democratic Party to a military court on Yassiada in the Sea of Marmara, accusing them of violation of the constitution. The day after the coup, four-star general Cemal Gürsel was declared the commander in chief, Head of state, Prime minister and Minister of Defense of the 24th government on 30 May 1960, in theory giving him more absolute powers than even Kemal Atatürk had ever had. Gürsel freed 200 students and nine newsmen, and licensed 14 banned newspapers to start publishing again (Time, 6 June 1960). He fetched ten law professors, namely Siddik Sami Onar, Hifzi Veldet Velidedeoglu, Ragip Sarica, Naci Sensoy, Hüseyin Nail Kubali, Tarik Zafer Tunaya, Ismet Giritli, Ilhan Arsel, Bahri Savci and Muammer Aksoy, accompanied by Erdogan Teziç, a law postgraduate student as their assistant (later Chairman of the Turkish Council of Higher Education), from Istanbul and Ankara Universities to help draft a new constitution on 27 May, right after he arrived in Ankara. During their first meeting with General Cemal Gürsel on the same day, Prof. Onar declared on behalf of the group of law academicians that’the circumstances of the day should not be interpreted as an ordinary and political coup d’état, implying the revolution being brought by the change process starting in the republic that day. President Cemal Gürsel also formed a scientific council to guide the Ministry of Defence, later forming the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey to advise the government more broadly. He appointed General Ragip Gümüspala, the commander of the Third Army, as the new Chief of the General Staff who, upon his retirement in two months, was succeeded by General Cevdet Sunay, and Gümüspala was further directed by Gürsel to form the new Justice Party to bring together the former members of the Democratic Party. A simple and conservative sort, Gürsel became Turkey’s most popular figure, forbade display of his picture alongside Atatürk’s in government offices, rode about in an open Jeep touring rural communities, talking to the peasants almost as if they were his children (Time, 6 January 1961). He was successful with his personal interventions in reducing the number of execution verdicts from the Yassiada trials from 15 down to three. Gürsel’s plea for forgiveness and attempts along with several other world leaders for the reversal of the execution sentences and for the release of Adnan Menderes and two other ministers were rejected by the Junta. Of the National Unity Committee writes in his memoirs that, upon Cemal Gürsel’s intervention on the prevention of Menderes’ execution, the chief prosecutor of the tribunal, Altay Ömer Egesel, said:’Let us hurry! They will save him (Menderes)! , also arranging a contingency plan for conducting the execution in a Navy Destroyer in the event of a forgiveness operation in Imrali Island to save Menderes while, at the same time, placing a press release questioning the legal ability of Gürsel for an intervention. Adnan Menderes was hanged against the regulations. I was supposed to oversee the execution. The revolution tribunal’s chief prosecutor Egesel conducted the execution despite not being authorized. Ismet Inönü and Cemal Gürsel were already phoning for him (Menderes) not to be executed but the telecommunications’ office cut off the lines and Egesel made use of the (communication) gap to conduct the execution. Cemal Gürsel resisted pressure to continue military rule, was wounded as a result of a military assassination attempt on his life forgave the colonelwho? Who shot him, thwarted subsequent multiple military coup attempts, appointed the organizers of the coup to overseas posts and played an important role in the preparation of a new constitution and return to the democratic order of the Kemalist vision. Gürsel Hosting HM Queen Elizabeth II. Cemal Gürsel rescheduled and attended the previously cancelled Turkish and Scottish national football teams’ game in Ankara on 8 June 1960 (Turkey 4, Scotland 2) which was followed by a National Football Tournament, the Cemal Gürsel Cup, that helped boost the national morale in the post-coup weeks with finals in Istanbul on 3 July (Fenerbahçe 1, Galatasaray 0). He took an active role in extensive modernization of Turkish Armed Forces and the staunch defense of the free world and Europe during the cold war, in particular during the Cuban Missile Crisis. The declaration of independence of Cyprus according to the prior agreements and the deployment of a Turkish military unit to Cyprus took place in August 1960. He hosted the visit of Queen Elizabeth II to Ankara in early 1961 and the visit of the vice president Lyndon Johnson in 1962. Gürsel obtained, with the coordinated work of Sir Bernard Burrows, and granted permission of the ruling military National Unity Committee (NUC) for British military combat aircraft to overfly Turkish airspace on their way to support Kuwait, which was under threat of invasion by Iraq in July 1961. When questioned by a German journalist regarding his intentions on becoming the next president upon proposal of the interim parliament, Cemal Gürsel responded that he was ready to serve only if asked by the nation, not by the interim house. He neither put his own candidacy forward for the presidency nor lobbied for his election or against any other candidate in any way. He offered his endorsement of candidacy of several high rank academicians in Medicine and Sciences in Ankara for both the interim prime minister and future president positions. Gürsel placed a special emphasis on participatory democracy with the promotion of the full interests of the nation’s minorities, appointing Turkish Citizen ethnic leaders Hermine Kalustyan of Armenian, Kaludi Laskari of Greek and Erol Dilek of Jewish origin as his “Deputy Representatives of Head of State” and the full members of the interim House of Representatives. The editor of Shalom, Avram Leyon, accompanied him on his travels and foreign state functions. He re-established the freedom of speech that was overwhelmingly taken away from the media organs and from the press by the previous cabinet. The constitution, which brought for the first time a full text of civil and political rights under constitutional protection along with an improved system of checks and balances in Turkish history, was approved by a referendum held on 10 October 1961. With the establishment of the first Constitutional Court that created a new paradigm shift by scrutinizing the parliamentary rulings as the “checks” organ in 1961 and the addition of a Senate to the parliament, the Turkish Grand National Assembly was re-opened after the general elections, nominated and voted him as the fourth president of Turkey. Journalist Parliamentarian Cihat Baban claims in his book, The Gallery of Politics (Politika Galerisi) that Cemal Gürsel told him We may solve all troubles if Süleyman Demirel becomes the head of the Justice Party (Adalet Partisi). If I succeed in this, I will be happy.. Demirel was elected Chairman at the second grand party convention on 28 November 1964. The President of the Republic of Turkey Cemal Gürsel assigned the mandate to form and serve as the Prime Minister of the new government to Ismet Inönü in November 1961, June 1962 and December 1963, to Senator Suat Hayri Ürgüplü on February 1965 and, following the general elections, to Suleyman Demirel of Justice Party in October 1965. With the reduction of tensions between the West and the Soviet bloc, Gürsel sought improved relations for his country’s population of 27.8 million with the Soviet Union, such as the initiation of a telephone line agreement, as with the other members of the Western alliance while initiating new credit agreements with the US and the UK as well as bilateral technical and investment relations with Germany in 1960s. The atomic reactor in Istanbul became operational in 1962 along with his establishment of the first Research and State Library of the government in two years after his administration started. He promoted the grant of the freedom of and the legal rights to form unions and to go on strike in the country. Turkish Universities gained autonomous independence by law for the first time upon the legislation he passed. Cemal Gürsel granted a presidential pardon for the life sentences of the previous president Celal Bayar and the former chief of general staff Rustu Erdelhun whose prior execution sentence was also revoked by the National Unity Committee upon Gürsel’s appeals. He initiated the new era of planned economy in Turkey, formed a State Institute of Statistics, launched the State Planning Organization (DPT) that implemented “The First 5-Years Development Plan”, arranged re-entry of the Turkish Republic in the United Nations Security Council in 1961 and moved Turkey, through his close and personal diplomatic dialogues with Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer, into the direction of European Union membership with the Ankara Agreement, signed with France, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, Italy and Luxembourg in 1963, resulting in associate membership the following year and a large Turkish workforce migration to Germany and Western Europe to assist their postwar industrial development. When a Cypriot leader who was exiled out of the UK previously in 1956 on the basis of his struggle for Cypriot independence from the British rule, wanted in November 1963 to amend the basic articles of the 1960 constitution, communal violence ensued and Turkey, Great Britain and Greece, the guarantors of the agreements which had led to Cyprus’ independence, wanted to send a NATO force to the island under the command of General Young. Due to the continued ethnic violence between the Cypriot Turks and Cypriot Greeks, President Gürsel ordered warning flights and subsequent continuous air assaults by the Turkish Air Force against the island which continued between 7 and 10 August 1964, ending with the fulfilment of the military objectives of Turkey, and the invitation to calm by Nikita Khrushchev of USSR. Cemal Gürsel reformed the “Teskilat-i Mahsusa”, the “Special Organization” of clandestine security services to a modern National Intelligence Agency in response to and preparation against escalating international terrorism trends in 1963. He paved the way to Middle Eastern countries and Pakistan to concentrate on economic and cultural matters of mutual interest and Ankara recognized Syria following the breakup of the short-lived United Arab Republic in 1961, further reestablishing diplomatic relations with Egypt in 1965. In July 1964, Pakistani President Ayub Khan, Turkish President Cemal Gürsel, and Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran announced in Istanbul the establishment of the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD) organization to promote transportation and joint economic projects also envisioning Afghanistan and possibly Indonesia joining at some time in the future. He granted asylum to the political dissidents Ayatollah Khoumeini of Iran and Molla Barzani of Iraq. Gürsel, 40 years after the foundation of the Republic, launched the first radio broadcasting station of Eastern Anatolia within the centrally located province of Erzurum, where Ankara and Istanbul radios’ transmissions were not received. He brought the Microwave Telecommunications Network into operation increasing telephone and teletype capacity along with a High-Frequency Radio Link connecting London and Ankara with Rawalpindi, Karachi, Tehran and Istanbul. He laid the foundations of the new agricultural and structural development plans for the south-eastern Anatolian regions in early 1960s for the first time. With his directive, The Holy Relics from the Prophets Abraham, Moses, Joseph, David and Muhammad, including the oldest Qur’an in existence from the 7th Century were put on display from their storage rooms within the Topkapi Palace for public viewing for the first time on 31 August 1962. Gürsel added the first Ministry of Culture and Tourism to the cabinet. In a parallel effort of promoting the country’s touristic popularity in the West, Topkapi, the movie version of the book by Eric Ambler that had been commissioned for the same purpose, was shot in Paris and Istanbul and was introduced with success. Similarly, one of the favorite books of John F. Kennedy, Ian Fleming’s From Russia with Love was shot in Istanbul as the second James Bond movie, to promote the touristic popularity of Turkey, with his keen interest. The Directorate of Religious Affairs network of the country was founded with his directive and became operational on 22 June 1965. He started the new procedure of returning the law proposals presented for the President’s approval back to the Parliamentary re-discussions in 1963. Cemal Gürsel founded The National Security Council (MGK) as well as the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) in 1963, appointing Professor Cahit Arf as its first director, officially charging TUBITAK primarily with governmental advisory duty by legislation. In addition to the foundation of the Turkish Radio and Television (TRT) organization as a government agency in 1964 that brought television broadcasting to Turkey for the first time under his administration, the opening of The School of Press and Broadcasting at the College of Political Sciences in Ankara followed in November 1965. The country’s new initiative of Planning of Population Growth Control was put in effect in 1965. The production of the first domestic Turkish automobile, the Devrim (Revolution), took place with Cemal Gürsel’s directive which sparked the initiation of an automotive industry in the republic in the following few years. The first use of a computer in the country, iron and steel mass production growth, the thermic power plant and a petrol pipeline structuring took place during his presidency. Cemal Gürsel refused remuneration for his Head of State and subsequent Presidential positions and made his and his family’s living with his retired general’s salary, meeting their own expenses during their life in the Presidential Palace in Çankaya, Ankara. Because of a paralysis that started in early 1961 and progressed quickly in 1966, on 2 February Cemal Gürsel was flown to the Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington, D. On the private airplane “BlueBird” sent by US President Lyndon B. One week later, he fell into a coma there after suffering a series of new paralytic strokes. The government decided he return to Turkey on 24 March. President Johnson travelled by helicopter from the White House to Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, near Washington, D. To pay his respects to President Cemal Gürsel on his departure to home, In addition to issuing the following statement’Our distinguished friend, President Cemal Gursel of Turkey, came to the United States on 2 February for medical treatment. There was hope that new therapeutic procedures only recently developed in this country would be useful in treating his illness of several years. We were initially encouraged by his progress at Walter Reed Hospital, only to be shocked by the news on 8 February that his health had suffered a grave new blow. Our best talent, coupled with the skill of the eminent Turkish doctors who accompanied the President, was exerted to the utmost in the hope that the President might return to his home in fully restored health. We are saddened that this hope was not to be realized. We have been deeply honored to have President Gürsel come to our country to seek medical treatment. With a report of a medical committee by Gülhane Military Hospital in Ankara, the parliament ruled on 28 March 1966 that his presidency be terminated due to ill health in accordance with the constitution. He left behind no directives or last will. He was laid to rest at the “Freedom Martyrs Memorial” section in the yard of the mausoleum of Atatürk. His body was transferred on 27 August 1988 to a permanent burial place in the newly built Turkish State Cemetery. Among all of his achievements and great modesty in his down-to-earth plain demeanor, he tried to place the most emphasis on the need for a well-educated youth and a hard-working population with high standards of ethics for a westernized democratic progress in Atatürk’s tradition (commentary by Imran Oktem, Chief Supreme Court Justice – Yargitay, 1966). His portrait as a statesman and soldier remained next to Atatürk’s in most homes in Turkey for a long time. Erzurum Cemal Gürsel Stadium, some schools and streets were named after him. The developments during his term were described as the “Turkish Revolution” which was celebrated annually on 27 May as the Constitution Day until 1981. In 2002, a commemorative coin was released for the same. In 2008, the movie The Cars of Revolution was released in his memory. I took over the administration of the state to stop the tragic course of events. (Cemal Gürsel, radio address on the evening of 27 May 1960). The network was ready. I personally did not want the army to intervene and had been stopping the attempts (of takeover) of my younger friends. Now my only goal is to reinstate an administration built on the principles of justice and ethics. Cemal Gürsel, An interview. Cumhuriyet, 16 July 1960. Those who follow Atatürk will not be left behind. (Cemal Gürsel, from the address on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of Atatürk’s death, 10 November 1963). General Gursel may be described as the father of the second Turkish Republic similar to Atatürk being the father of modern Turkey. At a time of deep division, Gursel earned and maintained the respect of the Turkish Nation that regarded him as the symbol of national unity. When he passed away, he had the identity of the trusted father of the nation. Bernard Lewis, 15 September 1966. A few days before the coup, it was known that the coup was imminent but General Cemal Gursel was dismissed as a non-political general. No leading role by General Cemal Gursel was determined despite the foreknowledge of the plot. The CIA; The Inside Story by Andrew Tully, pages 51, 53. On 27 May, he (Cemal Gursel) was hurriedly requested to come (from his residence in Izmir) to the capital (Ankara) to assume the leadership of National Unity Committee. The Turkish Revolution, Aspects of Military politics. The Brookings Institution, 1963. When 27 May revolt occurred, Cemal Gürsel was not a participant. He was invited to become the head due to the circumstances and he willingly accepted. (Burhan Felek, Milliyet, Page 2, 18 September 1971). General Gürsel was brought into the NUC chairmanship by the revolution team when he was in retirement preparation. In actuality he was in the position of a chairman found in last minute with a hurried search. He never was the responsible leader for a true leader is not to be appointed but is self-appointed. (By a leading member of the NUC). One of the core players of the coup, Orhan Erkanli told that they revolted on 27 May without knowing what to do on 28 May. No one, including Cemal Gürsel knew who and how many would be forming the NUC. In actuality, even Cemal Gürsel was brought in later. Years of Ismet Pasha of our Democracy, 1960-61 by Metin Toker, page 25. It is now known that the coup was the result of years of planning on the part of conspirators, a number of radical colonels and ranks below in their early forties. He (Cemal Gürsel) was not involved in the details of the organization of the coup d’état. When the coup had succeeded, he was brought to Ankara. Turkey, A modern History by Erik Zurcher. We just see that a few very important lines in his letter (to the Minister of Defence) had been censored. That means we are going without learning the true history, without knowing who knows what facts and what true pictures of turning points. (Çetin Altan, Author, Journalist, September 2006). An extremely important document that sheds light on the past has been revealed. Testimony from eyewitnesses at the time helped make known that the letter had been modified after 27 May, but the location of the original letter was unknown. This important document adds a new dimension to the 27 May revolution. We have come face to face with a new document that changes our written history. It was my greatest wish to obtain just such a document; not for my own satisfaction, but for my father, to prove this reality and obtain genuine evidence. I was thrilled when I heard about this. (Mr Aydin Menderes, Author, the Son of Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, September 2006). Adnan Menderes was hung against the regulations. The revolution tribunal’s chief prosecutor Altay Egesel conducted the execution despite not being authorized. Ismet Inönü and Cemal Gürsel were already phoning for him (Adnan Menderes) not to be executed but the telecommunications’ office cut off the lines and Egesel made use of the (communication) gap to conduct the execution. Mehmet Feyyat, District Attorney General, Istanbul Province Prosecutor General 1961, The Administrator of the Imrali Prison, The Lawyer of the Year, Senator. (Reported by Özkan GÜVEN, STAR Newspaper, 13 November 2006 with a summary in Turkish at Law in the Capitol). Where are we now and where are the nations such as Portugal, Greece and Spain with whom we departed for the competition of development in 1960s? In one word, an embarrassment. (Hasan Cemal, Milliyet, October 2006). We built an automobile with the mentality of the West and we forgot to put gasoline in it with the mentality of the East. (Cemal Gürsel, President, on the Anniversary of the Turkish Republic, 29 October 1963). 1962 attempted coup in Turkey. “Çankaya’nin First Lady’leri”. Retrieved 14 February 2019. “Transport of Cemal Gürsel’s body to the State Cemetery” (in Turkish). Press Agency of the Turkish Government website. Retrieved 12 November 2006. Song of The Pharaohs – The Kings of the East and the West. Analysis of political scene on 26 May 1960, research article (in Turkish). General Gursel hosting HM Queen Elizabeth’s first visit to Turkey, Ankara, 1961[permanent dead link]. The full translated text of Cemal Gursel’s letter The research copy of the Turkish original. Cemal Gursel’s Memorandum Revealed. His video and photographs at the President’s Web Page. Cemal Gursel with Vice President Lyndon Johnson in Ankara, 1962 (Anatolian Agency Album). 60’s video montage. Presidential Messages search Cemal Gursel. Text of Ankara Agreement. The movie “The Cars of Revolution”. His photos in LIFE Magazine[permanent dead link]. Video footage of massacres and offensives against Turkish Community. Cable from US Embassy reflecting collective efforts of Cemal Gursel, Ismet Inonu and his entire cabinet and Gen Cevdet Sunay to stop executions. Commander of the Third Army. Commander of the Turkish Army. Minister of National Defense. Prime Minister of Turkey. The 1962 attempted coup in Turkey (also known as the February 22 Incident) was led by the Commander of the Turkish Military Academy, Staff Colonel tr:Talat Aydemir and his associates, who were opposed to the democratically elected government in Turkey. [1][2][3] Despite taking control of much of Ankara, the coup leaders quickly realised they could not prevail and surrendered without any loss of life occurring. Talat Aydemir went on to lead a further coup attempt in 1963. The Armed Forces Union. June – July 1961. January – February 1962. False alarm, 20 February 1962. Nevertheless there were groups of junior officers who felt that the direction taken by the MBK was wrong, particularly after it had dismissed “the fourteen” hardline coup supporters on 13 November 1960. Following the dismissal of the fourteen hardliners, the High Command continued to steadily remove officers whom it regarded as unreliable, and to make new appointments of those who would not oppose the return to democracy. While the process of handing over power from the army to the civilian authorities was underway, there were several indications of growing dissent. [7][8] One was the creation of the Armed Forces Union (Turkish: Silahli Kuvvetler Birligi) late in 1960 as a voice for officers pressing for a more radical policy. Its membership and aims were unclear and its existence at the time was little known outside the armed forces themselves. [5]:139[9][6]. Tension between the MBK and the Armed Forces Union first became public in June 1961, when airforce commander Irfan Tansel was removed from his military post and sent to Washington DC as an adviser to Turkey’s military mission. There were rumours of a number of other dismissals and appointments, and Talat Aydemir was one of a group of officers who met in Ankara to agree a six-point protocol which they sent to the General Staff, demanding the reinstatement of Tansel, the cancellation of other dismissals and promotions, and no future interference from the MBK in military appointments. [9] A squadron of jet fighters flew over Ankara to emphasise the seriousness of the Armed Forces Union’s intentions. Faced with this show of determination, the MBK agreed to the demands of the Armed Forces Union, but decided to also to issue a statement, through the General Staff, to all members of the armed forces. This statement, issued on 28 June 1961, offered assurances that the planned civilian regime would not be able to take action against the coup leaders of 1960, and that the sentences of the Yassiada trials would be carried out promptly. In July, the junior officers’ concerns were increased when, in the referendum, the new military-approved constitution was only approved by 61.7% of voters. [12] Following this, on 25 August 1961 members of the Armed Forces Union were required to swear an oath to support the work of the MBK. Prime Minister Ismet Inönü (1964). In the October 1961 elections the Republican People’s Party failed to win an outright majority and incoming prime minister Ismet Inönü was obliged to form a coalition government with the newly formed Justice Party, which effectively reconstituted the Democrat Party that had been removed from power by the 1960 coup. [13] Overall, the majority of votes had gone to parties that claimed to be successors of the Democrats. The general election result prompted Talat Aydemir and his associates to begin mobilising their supporters to use force to prevent the return to civilian rule. [14][15]:178 On 21 October 1961 a large meeting was held at the Turkish Military Academy in Istanbul, following which 10 Generals and 28 Colonels signed what became known as the October Protocol. [9][6] According to this protocol, the military was to intervene before the newly elected Grand National Assembly of Turkey was convened – no later than 25 October 1961. However, those who signed it had no means of implementing it without the active support of senior officers. Instead of supporting the junior officers, the army High Command intervened to oblige the leaders of the four largest parties to sign the Çankaya Protocol, guaranteeing the continuation of the reforms instituted after the coup, granting immunity to those who had led it, and agreeing not to stand any candidates for the presidency against Cemal Gürsel. [6][17][18]:62 The junior officers were unable to do anything to prevent the recently-elected coalition government from taking power. Once the civilian government was installed, the concerns of Aydemir and his colleagues seemed well-founded. Politicians who had been removed from office by the 1960 coup were preparing to make a rapid return to public life: the newly formed Justice Party began examining possible grounds for the pardon of those still held in detention after the Yassiada trials. A particular flashpoint was the funeral of the Democrat Party’s Minister of National Education, Tevfik Ileri which saw young people protesting against the coup for the first time and demanding the release of political prisoners. A grouping of military officers known as the “Extended Command Council” (Turkish: Genisletilmis Komuta Konseyi) met at the General Staff Headquarters on 19 January 1962 to discuss a proposal from Chief of the General Staff Cevdet Sunay that they should abandon any thought of staging a military intervention and instead rally behind the government of Ismet Inönü. The Generals and Commanders at that meeting supported Sunay’s proposal but Talat Aydemir and the Colonels who attended stated that they did not agree and that a military intervention was necessary. However, without the support of the Generals, especially the Chief of the General Staff, they would have been acting outside the chain of command if they tried to move on their own. Prime Minister Inönü decided to try and defuse the tensions within the army by visiting military units in Istanbul and Ankara. He first visited the 66th Division Command and the War Academies in Istanbul. At the units he went to, he advised the officers to remain calm and patient, making clear that he did not support any action by them. [19] This undermined the plans of those officers who believed that they should seize power in order to offer him their support. On February 5, 1962, he went to visit the Military Academy in Ankara, and no one received him other than the commanders and the inspection unit. On 9 February Lieutenant General tr:Refik Tulga convened a meeting in Balmumcu, Istanbul, that was attended by 59 officers. Thirty seven of those attending, including Talat Aydemir, agreed on the need to carry out a military intervention before 28 February. [6][19][21] Cevdet Sunay however refused to support overthrowing the government as long as Inönü, Atatürk’s deputy, remained prime minister. Instead, Sunay alerted Inönü to what Talat Aydemir and the other junior officers were planning. On February 18, 1962, Sunay also summoned the Corps Commanders of the 1st Army, the Governor of Istanbul, Lieutenant General Refik Tulga, the Commander of the War Academies Brigadier General tr:Faruk Güventürk and the Commander of the War Fleet to Ankara. These generals had previously met with Talat Aydemir and other radical colonels, and made clear that they would not agree to support a new coup. On February 19, 1962, Sunay also summoned Talat Aydemir, Necati Ünsalan and Selçuk Atakan to the General Staff Headquarters. Air Force Commander Irfan Tansel, Land Forces Commander Muhittin Önür and Gendarmerie General Commander Abdurrahman Doruk Pasha were waiting for them here, but they were still unable to persuade the colonels to give up their plans. [9] There now seemed no alternative but for the government and the High Command to take action against them. Rumours began to spread through the army that Talat Aydemir and his associates were going to stage their coup on the night of February 20-21. In response, officers in the Etimesgut Armored Units School First Armoured Division Tank Battalion placed their troops on alert. Likewise, sections of the 229th Infantry Regiment and the Guard Regiment also prepared to join the coup. By the following morning it was clear that the rumour was unfounded. Cevdet Sunay was enraged when he heard what had happened the previous night. He summoned Talat Aydemir and two other officers to General Staff Headquarters and advised them that they would immediately be transferred to new posts away from the capital, although Aydemir denied any wrongdoing or involvement in the previous night’s events. At a meeting of the General Staff later on February 21, and orders were given for the transfer of officers causing unrest to units in the East. The list of names included including Selçuk Atakan, Emin Arat, Ihsan Erkan, Haldun Doran and Sükrü Ilkin (commander of the Presidential Guard Regiment) as well as Talat Aydemir[20][22]. When Aydemir learned that the transfer order had been issued, he gathered about 600 recent graduates of the Military Academy and made a speech to them at 3pm, explaining the events of recent days. In his speech, Aydemir said. The 1960 coup failed to reach its goal. Parliament is not working. The army is being criticised. Now commanders are sent East to break up the forces at the ready. Our plans are ready, the army is with us. Our password is’Halaskar’ and our sign is’Fedailer’… If this action does not succeed, I will commit suicide. [13][4][19]. The expressions chosen as passwords and signs alluded to Enver Pasha and the 1913 Ottoman coup d’état that took place outside the chain of command. The graduates agreed to support him and prepared to fight. The units that had responded to the false rumour on 19th February did not join in this time, as they had new officers in command. Nevertheless Aydemir sent tanks from Military Academy towards the Turkish Grand National Assembly. The government placed anti-tank guns around the building. Soldiers from the barracks in Polatli and Çubuk were called in to help break the siege, but all of the battalions called to suppress the coup sided with Talat Aydemir and declared their loyalty to him. On the morning of 22 February the battalion guarding the parliament building went over to the rebels units loyal to Aydemir were effectively in control of central Ankara, including the radio station. [21] Critically however, the Air Force remained loyal to the government, and this was to prove decisive. With unchallenged air superiority, Ismet Inönü’s government made preparations to bomb the Army War College with jets from the Murted airbase. Aydemir and his colleagues announced their aims as the dissolution of the Grand National Assembly, the resignation of the government and the passing of the administration to them through the suspension of the Constitution. At noon on February 22 Cihat Alpan was appointed to replace Sükrü Ilkin as commander of the Presidential Guard Regiment protecting the Çankaya Mansion. However, the cavalry group of the Guard Regiment under Major Fethi Gürcan detained Alpan and then found itself in control of President Cemal Gürsel, Prime Minister Inönü and several other ministers, Chief of General Staff Sunay and the force commanders, who were meeting inside the mansion at that time. [4] [23] Gürcan contacted Talat Aydemir and asked permission to arrest them all. Aydemir refused because he did not want his action to be seen as a coup, so he ordered Gürcan to release them all. [4] As he left the mansion, Inönü smiled and said Now they have lost. As soon as he left the Çankaya mansion, Inönü headed for the Airforce Command Building, where he met other party leaders as well as the Airforce commanders. The government’s plan was now for President Gürsel and Prime Minister Inönü to make conciliatory speeches over the radio to try and de-escalate the situation. Mediation was established through Ekrem Alican, the leader of the New Turkey Party and a relative of Talat Aydemir, but this made little progress. Cemal Gürsel departed for Murted air base. When Fethi Gürcan seized the radio’s transmitting station in Etimesgut with his troops, Inönü’s broadcasts stopped, but he was able to resume his addresses through the transmitter at Ankara Esenboga Airport a few hours later. In his messages, Inönü stressed that providing no blood was shed, Aydemir and the other soldiers supporting the coup would not be punished. He refused however to consider any of the demands the coup leaders had made. It became clear to Aydemir that no further units were intending to join him, that his forces were surrounded, and that the government, political parties and High Command were steadily regaining the upper hand. He ordered the tanks in central Ankara to withdraw. [21] On the evening of 22 February, the jets of the Air Force began to fly low over the Military Academy. At 1am in the morning of 23 February, Inönü sent Aydemir a written note confirming that there would be no punishments if he and his followers gave up. Shortly afterwards Aydemir called on his followers to lay down their arms and return to barracks while he himself surrendered. When Inönü entered the Grand National Assembly on February 23, he was given an unprecedented standing ovation from deputies of all parties, who expressed their gratitude and confidence in the armed forces. The students of the Military Academy were given a week’s early leave and the school was temporarily closed and Semih Sancar was appointed to head it in place of Talat Aydemir. Aydemir, Emin Arat, Dündar Seyhan and Turgut Alpagut were kept under guard for a while, but there were no arrests. Fourteen officers were transferred while Aydemir and 22 others were retired from the army. [14] Aydemir was arrested not for the attempted coup but for insulting Ismet Inönü and as detained in prison for just 9 days. [13] Inönü’s conciliatory approach avoided holding a number of trials that would have caused discord and embarrassment to a government working to restore calm and order following the return to civilian rule. Indeed, on 22 April Inönü managed to persuade the Turkish Grand National Assembly to pass an amnesty law that allowed them to return to the ranks. [24] There was a political cost – in return for agreeing to amnesty the coup officers, the Justice Party demanded the early release of Democrat Party prisoners held in Kayseri prison since the 1960 coup. In fact the attempted coup, the pardon debates and the ensuing the party conflicts overwhelmed Inönü, who resigned on 30 May 1962. Talat Aydemir continued to oppose the return to civilian rule and gave many interviews sharing his views in the months after his release. On May 20, 1963 he led a second attempted coup, and after this he was arrested, sentenced to death and executed. Gursel’s father was an officer of the Ottoman army so after the middle school he was graduated from Kuleli military highschool in Istanbul. He was even captured as a prisoner of war by the British for two years during a campaign in Palestine. He served in the army a total of 45 years. In 1958 Cemal Gursel became the commander of Turkish ground forces as a four-star general. Due to a memorandum he sent to the Minister of Defence, expressing his views on Adnan Menderes who, according to Gursel, should become the next president, he was suspended from his post and forced for an early retirement. But, since he was a popular army figure, he was chosen as the leader of a military coup on 27th of May 1960 run by young army officers, which overthrew the government of Adnan Menderes. After the military court on Yassiada island, Gursel tried to stop the execution of Menderes on Imrali island, but no avail. Cemal Gürsel resisted attempts to continue military rule. He was elected as the fourth President of the Republic in 1961 and played an important role in the preparation of a new Constitution and return back to the democracy after the coup. Because of his illness which progressed quickly and took him into a coma, his presidency was terminated by the Parliament, and then he was succeeded by Cevdet Sunay on March of 1966. Cemal Gursel died of apoplexy on September 14th of the same year, in Ankara. He’s now buried at the Turkish State Cemetery. Cemal Gürsel was a Turkish army officer, and the fourth President of Turkey. Cemal Gürsel was born on October 13, 1895 in Erzurum, Turkey. After the elementary school in Ordu and the military middle school in Erzincan, Cemal Gürsel graduated from the Kuleli military high school in Istanbul. He attended the Turkish Military College and graduated in 1929 as a staff officer. Cemal Gürsel served in the Army for 45 years. Cemal Gürsel was kept as a prisoner of war in Egypt until 6 October 1920. Cemal Gürsel was promoted colonel in 1940. The day after the coup, four-star general Cemal Gürsel was declared the commander in chief, Head of state, Prime minister and Minister of Defense of the 24th government on 30 May 1960. Cemal Gürsel freed 200 students and nine newsmen, and licensed 14 banned newspapers to start publishing again. He fetched ten law professors, a law postgraduate student as their assistant, from Istanbul and Ankara Universities to help draft a new constitution on 27 May, right after he arrived in Ankara. Cemal Gürsel hosted the visit of Queen Elizabeth II to Ankara in early 1961 and the visit of the vice president Lyndon Johnson in 1962. President Johnson went by helicopter from the White House to Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, near Washington, D. To pay his respects to President Cemal Gürsel on his departure to home. In addition to issuing the following statement Our distinguished friend, President Cemal Gursel of Turkey, came to the United States on 2 February for medical treatment. A simple and conservative sort, Cemal Gürsel became Turkey’s most popular figure, forbade display of his picture alongside Atatürk’s in government offices, rode about in an open Jeep touring rural communities, talking to the peasants almost as if they were his children. He was successful with his personal interventions in reducing the number of execution verdicts from the Yassiada tribunals from 15 down to three. Cemal Gürsel promoted the grant of the freedom of and the legal rights to form unions and to go on strike in the country. Cemal Gürsel initiated the new era of planned economy in Turkey, formed a State Institute of Statistics, launched the State Planning Organization (DPT) that implemented “The First 5-Years Development Plan”, arranged re-entry of the Turkish Republic in the United Nations Security Council in 1961 and moved Turkey, through his close and personal diplomatic dialogues with Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer, into the direction of European Union membership with the Ankara Agreement, signed with France, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, Italy and Luxembourg in 1963, resulting in associate membership the following year and a large Turkish workforce migration to Germany and Western Europe to assist their postwar industrial development. Cemal Gürsel, 40 years after the foundation of the Republic, launched the first radio broadcasting station of Eastern Anatolia within the centrally located province of Erzurum, where Ankara and Istanbul radios’ transmissions were not received. Cemal Gürsel added the first Ministry of Culture and Tourism to the cabinet. Quotations: I took over the administration of the state to stop the tragic course of events. Cemal Gürsel, as an easy-going and fatherly figure with a fine sense of humor, was well liked both nationally and in NATO circles, and had earned the respect and confidence of both the nation and the armed forces with his professional knowledge and demeanor. Quotes from others about the person. Professor Bernard Lewis: General Gursel may be described as the father of the second Turkish Republic similar to Atatürk being the father of modern Turkey. Cemal Gürsel was married, in 1927, to Melahat, the daughter of the chief engineer on the Ottoman cruiser Hamidiye. Cemal Gürsel was born in Erzurum in 1895. After receiving primary education in Ordu, he continued his education as a military student in Erzincan and Istanbul. Cemal Bey who participated in the Çanakkale (Dardanelles) Battle between 1915 and 1917 as an Artillery Officer also took part on the Syrian and Palestinian fronts of the World War I. He fought in all the Western fronts of the War of Independence. After graduating from the Military Academy in 1929, he was appointed as the Commander of the Land Forces in 1958. He resigned from the military on 3 May 1960 and left for Izmir. Immediately after the military coup on 27 May 1960, he headed the National Unity Committee that was formed by the military. After the execution of the former Prime Minister Adnan Menderes and two of his ministers in the aftermath of the military coup, he played an important role in the formation of the new Constitution and transition to democracy again. In accordance with the Constitution that was approved in a referendum, he was elected as the fourth President of Turkey by the Turkish Grand National Assembly (TBMM) that was formed in the 10 October 1961 elections. Due to the deterioration in his health conditions in 1966, his Presidency was terminated by the TBMM in accordance with the Constitution. Cemal Gürsel who got married to Melahat Hanim in 1927 and had a child with her died on 14 September 1966. Military man, statesman, 4th president of Republic of Turkey. June 10th, 1895, Erzurum – D. September 14th, 1966, Ankara. The son of a military family, he studied the primary school in Ordu. After completing the secondary school in Erzincan; he studied at Istanbul Kuleli Military High School. During his senior year, the 1st World War began. Because of the war, his education was interrupted on October 16th, 1914 and he started to serve in 4th Army Command as lieutenant. He fought in the Battle of Dardanelles between 1915 and 1917 as the artillery officer. He was on the battles on the Palestine and Syrian fronts. He participated in almost all the battles on the Western Front during the Independence War. He got promotion and became the captain on 1st September 1922. He entered War Academy on 1st October 1926 and graduated as a staff officer in 1929. In 1927, he married Melahat Hanim and they had one son, Muzaffer. Starting from 1946, he was promoted to the Brigadier General and undertook commands of divisions, corps and the army. In 1958, he was promoted to the rank of General and became the Commander of the Land Forces. Before the May 27th 1960 Revolution; while he was still a Commander of the Land Forces; he visited Ethem Menderes, who was the Minister of Defense on 2nd May 1960. During his visit, he reflected his personal views to the Minister of Defense, accordingly to the government, expressing his support to the Prime Minister Adnan Menderes and a letter reflecting his belief that the Prime Minister should replace the President. This resulted in his suspension from his post, forcing an early retirement on 3rd May 1960. A farewell letter by him, advocating and urging the army to stay out of politics, was forwarded to all units of the armed forces at the time of his departure on leave for Izmir. After the coup d’état on 27 May 1960, which was organized and conducted by army officers at the rank of colonels and below, Cemal Gürsel, was chosen as the chairman of the military coup and by the National Unity Committee. During his position, he survived an assassination attempt, but he was wounded. He and other 13 members of the National Unity Committee, including Türkes, were sent to abroad for an official duty. While he was the chairman of National Unity Committee, he launched the Erzurum Radio. Gürsel directed the retired general Ragip Gümüspala to bring the Demokrat Party members together to form the Adalet Party. By virtue of the 1961 Constitution, which was prepared by the Constituent Assembly and presented for a referendum held on 10th October 1961, he was nominated and gained the majority of the votes at Turkish Grand National Assembly to be the fourth president of Turkey on 21st October 1961. He initiated the new era of planned economy in Turkey and formed a State Institute of Statistics, launched the State Planning Organization. He promoted the legal rights to form unions, to go on strike in the country and to enact the law of collective bargaining. The establishment of National Security Council (MIT), the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the School of Press and Broadcasting were established during his presidency. He also paved the way for the planning to develop the Southeastern Turkey, the formation of Turkish Radio and Television Association (TRT) (1964), the first use of a computer in the country, the establishment of the first State Research Library, as well as the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) along with many other “firsts”. The production of the first domestic Turkish automobile, “Devrim” T. Revolution, took place with Cemal Gürsel’s directive. Because of a disease that started in 1966, Cemal Gürsel was sent abroad. In accordance with the Constitution, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey ruled that his presidency be terminated due to his ill health on 28th March 1966. When he died, he was laid to rest at the “Freedom Martyrs Memorial” section in the yard of the Atatürk’s mausoleum. His body was later transferred to the Turkish State Cemetery. Excelling in the battles of the Final Offensive, he was awarded the Medal of Independence. A documentary film was made about him by because of the manufacture of the “Devrim” automobile. On 27 May 1960, General Cemal Gürsel led a coup d’etat that removed President Celal Bayar, prime minister Adnan Menderes, and his cabinet from power and dissolved the parliament. Several members of the Menderes government were charged with various crimes ranging from misuse of public funds to abrogation of the Constitution and high treason. Arraigned before a joint civilian – military tribunal, a number of those charged were sentenced to prison terms and former Premier Menderes was executed along with two other ministers. The 1960 coup occurred against a backdrop of escalating tension between the government and opposition that threatened to erupt into civil war. First elected in 1950, Menderes built on the liberalization measures that followed Atatürk’s death in 1938, including a relaxation of laws that restricted the role of minorities and Islam. Confronted with strong Kemalist opposition, the government repeatedly passed legislation designed to restrict freedom of the press to print material “designed to damage the political or financial prestige of the state” or “belittling persons holding official positions”. By 1959, growing hostilities between government and opposition supporters fuelled by a polarization of public opinion led to violent clashes. In April 1960, a series of large-scale student demonstrations paralyzed university campuses and led to bloody confrontations with police forces. The imposition of martial law in Istanbul and Ankara on 1st of May and the confinement of demonstrators in detention camps failed to restore civil order. Although public unrest had been growing over the previous year, the trigger for the coup appears to have been the 1st of May decision to use the armed forces in an effort to regain control of the situation. While some senior officers supported the government, Istanbul’s martial law commander announced that his troops were authorized to fire on “even the smallest public assembly” – others were not united behind this policy. One week after the declaration of martial law, the commander of land forces, General Gürsel, was placed on a compulsory leave of absence. In his farewell message, Gürsel urged his troops to steel themselves against the greedy political atmosphere now blowing through the country. Such sentiments were clearly shared by others as well. Former President and Atatürk’s colleague, Ismet Inönü, warned that “an oppressive regime can never be sure of the army”. In a 27 May broadcast, Cemal Gürsel rejected dictatorship and announced that the government had been overthrown to help establish an honest and just democratic order and to give over the administration of the state into the hands of the nation. In a press conference on 28 May, Gürsel emphasized that the purpose and the aim of the coup is to bring the country with all speed to a fair, clean and solid democracy… I want to transfer power and the administration of the nation to the free choice of the people. That same day, the military-dominated cabinet issued a policy statement promising respect for human rights and the abolition of all laws contrary to the Kemalist tradition. The military dominated the political scene until October 1965. During that time, a series of conservative coalition government led by former President Inönü held office. When free elections were once again permitted, Süleyman Demirel led his Justice Party (Adalet Parti – AP) to victory. Demirel remained in office until the Turkish military forced his resignation in March 1971. This item is in the category “Collectibles\Autographs\Historical”. The seller is “memorabilia111″ and is located in this country: US. This item can be shipped to United States, New Zealand, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Wallis and Futuna, Gambia, Malaysia, Taiwan, Poland, Oman, Suriname, United Arab Emirates, Kenya, Argentina, Guinea-Bissau, Armenia, Uzbekistan, Bhutan, Senegal, Togo, Ireland, Qatar, Burundi, Netherlands, Slovakia, Slovenia, Equatorial Guinea, Thailand, Aruba, Sweden, Iceland, Macedonia, Belgium, Israel, Liechtenstein, Kuwait, Benin, Algeria, Antigua and Barbuda, Swaziland, Italy, Tanzania, Pakistan, Burkina Faso, Panama, Singapore, Kyrgyzstan, Switzerland, Djibouti, Chile, China, Mali, Botswana, Republic of Croatia, Cambodia, Indonesia, Portugal, Tajikistan, Vietnam, Malta, Cayman Islands, Paraguay, Saint Helena, Cyprus, Seychelles, Rwanda, Bangladesh, Australia, Austria, Sri Lanka, Gabon Republic, Zimbabwe, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Norway, Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast), Kiribati, Turkmenistan, Grenada, Greece, Haiti, Greenland, Afghanistan, Montenegro, Mongolia, Nepal, Bahamas, Bahrain, United Kingdom, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Hungary, Angola, Western Samoa, France, Mozambique, Namibia, Peru, Denmark, Guatemala, Solomon Islands, Vatican City State, Sierra Leone, Nauru, Anguilla, El Salvador, Dominican Republic, Cameroon, Guyana, Azerbaijan Republic, Macau, Georgia, Tonga, San Marino, Eritrea, Saint Kitts-Nevis, Morocco, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Mauritania, Belize, Philippines, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Colombia, Spain, Estonia, Bermuda, Montserrat, Zambia, South Korea, Vanuatu, Ecuador, Albania, Ethiopia, Monaco, Niger, Laos, Ghana, Cape Verde Islands, Moldova, Madagascar, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Lebanon, Liberia, Bolivia, Maldives, Gibraltar, Hong Kong, Central African Republic, Lesotho, Nigeria, Mauritius, Saint Lucia, Jordan, Guinea, Canada, Turks and Caicos Islands, Chad, Andorra, Romania, Costa Rica, India, Mexico, Serbia, Kazakhstan, Saudi Arabia, Japan, Lithuania, Trinidad and Tobago, Malawi, Nicaragua, Finland, Tunisia, Uganda, Luxembourg, Turkey, Germany, Egypt, Latvia, Jamaica, South Africa, Brunei Darussalam, Honduras.
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: Turkey
  • Industry: Historical
  • Original/Reproduction: Original
  • Signed: Yes

AUTOGRAPH TURKEY RARE PRESIDENT Cemal Gürsel COUP SIGNED CARD ORIGINAL VINTAGE

Signed President DONALD TRUMP Autograph, COA UACC PSA/DNA Guaranteed, FRAME, HAT

signed
Signed President DONALD TRUMP Autograph, COA UACC PSA/DNA Guaranteed, FRAME, HAT
Signed President DONALD TRUMP Autograph, COA UACC PSA/DNA Guaranteed, FRAME, HAT
Signed President DONALD TRUMP Autograph, COA UACC PSA/DNA Guaranteed, FRAME, HAT
Signed President DONALD TRUMP Autograph, COA UACC PSA/DNA Guaranteed, FRAME, HAT
Signed President DONALD TRUMP Autograph, COA UACC PSA/DNA Guaranteed, FRAME, HAT
Signed President DONALD TRUMP Autograph, COA UACC PSA/DNA Guaranteed, FRAME, HAT
Signed President DONALD TRUMP Autograph, COA UACC PSA/DNA Guaranteed, FRAME, HAT
Signed President DONALD TRUMP Autograph, COA UACC PSA/DNA Guaranteed, FRAME, HAT
Signed President DONALD TRUMP Autograph, COA UACC PSA/DNA Guaranteed, FRAME, HAT
Signed President DONALD TRUMP Autograph, COA UACC PSA/DNA Guaranteed, FRAME, HAT
Signed President DONALD TRUMP Autograph, COA UACC PSA/DNA Guaranteed, FRAME, HAT

Signed President DONALD TRUMP Autograph, COA UACC PSA/DNA Guaranteed, FRAME, HAT
TRUMP, 45th President of the United States of America. This is a beautifully framed President DONALD TRUMP Original AUTOGRAPHED 10″ x 8″ color Photo… COA guaranteed for life by world renowned TODD MUELLER AUTOGRAPHS & UACC Registered Dealer #228. Trump AUTOGRAPHED Color 10 x 8 PHOTO matted with gold & white in a. New FRAME with engraved Brass PLAQUE & Presidential Seal. + A New York NEWSPAPER covering the 2017 Inauguration & Election of Trump. + A Campaign HAT, “Make America Great Again”. + A Certificate of Authenticity (COA) from world renowned TODD MUELLER AUTOGRAPHS… Signature guaranteed for life by UACC Registered Dealer #228. He signed his name in his own hand on this Color Photo in Blue Marker.. It also has this Description PLAQUE under his Autograph… Next to it is mounted a metal Presidential Seal. THIS IS NOT A COPY… THIS IS PRESIDENT DONALD TRUMP’S ACTUAL ORIGINAL SIGNATURE. This valuable TRUMP original Signature is guaranteed for life by the UACC Registered Dealer #228 and includes the Original CERTIFICATE OF AUTHENTICITY from world renowned TODD MUELLER AUTOGRAPHS. This RARE Autograph is mounted in a new large Gold display in this acid-free matted Presidential FRAME with white & gold mattes. The entire piece measures approximately 20″ x 16″… The original Signed PHOTO measures 10″ x 8″.. This DONALD TRUMP Autograph is Absolutely Authentic, is in very Good Condition, and is mounted in a beautiful Creative Framed Exhibit… Just ready to hang in your Office, Home or Museum. And, you also receive this new, mint Donald Trump CAMPAIGN CAP, “Make America Great Again”. You also receive this complete New York NEWSPAPER with “Inauguration” on the front page.. Inside the other sections of the newspaper is a complete breakdown of the election & inauguration with many different articles and photos. A GREAT “President DONALD TRUMP” Collection! This is a museum quality FRAMED Display of President DONALD TRUMP, real estate magnate, television star & politician… Ready to display on the wall in your Home, Museum or Office. All of our collections are professionally designed by Adrianne Richmond, our Award-Winning Chicago-based Art Director. Donald John Trump, Sr. (born June 14, 1946) is an American politician, business magnate, investor, television personality, and author. He is the 45th President of the United States, he is the chairman and president of The Trump Organization and the founder of Trump Entertainment Resorts. He hosted The Apprentice, a US TV show. Trump is a son of Fred Trump, a New York City real estate developer. Donald Trump worked for his father’s firm, Elizabeth Trump & Son, while attending the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, and, in 1968, officially joined the company. He was given control of the company in 1971, renaming it The Trump Organization. Trump remains a major figure in the real estate industry in the United States and a media celebrity. In 2010, Trump expressed an interest in becoming a candidate for President of the United States in the 2012 election, but in May 2011, he announced he would not run. On June 16, 2015 at Trump Tower in Manhattan, Trump formally announced his candidacy for President of the United States in the 2016 election, seeking the nomination of the Republican Party and won in an electoral landslide over Hillary Clinton. This would make a GREAT GIFT for a History or DONALD TRUMP Collector.. We’re offering a large COLLECTION of Historical AUTOGRAPHS, Movie & TV Props, Toys, Vintage Items, High End Collectibles, Screen-used items & Props….. CHECK OUT OUR OTHER AUCTIONS FOR MORE GREAT HISTORICAL EXHIBITS, including other Presidential Displays, a Piece of the White House, an original Piece of the White House Red Room & other Presidential Autographs & Collections. If this autograph is declared not to be authentic, we may ask the purchaser to supply the full written opinion of one competent authority acceptable to us. Sell is a Registered Dealer with the U. We are proud that some of our memorabilia is on display in the SMITHSONIAN, Washington, D. 18442 Praise: Great item!! Heimdell51 Praise: Great guy; very prompt & efficient service & exc. Packaging; got a free bonus too! Momosroswell Praise: Wonderful item! Docfsk100 “Praise: Excellent, Danke”. Austinpowheinybeer Praise: GREAT GREAT GREAT!! Toothfella Thanks for the super helmet Jack! Hope to do business again. Jimsoden Praise: Great packing, good emails, very generous with his time and effort, class act!!! Circus10 Praise: Fabulous costume, vintage RBBB. Belfast Praise: Wonderful Ebayer & with genuine COA’s too! Easy to deal with… MAKES FUN MOVIES, TOO!! A great piece of American Presidential history….. A real “One of a Kind” Find & Investment Piece…. Historical Collections, Movie Posters, Props & Autographs could make for a good investment as well! A Great Trump COLLECTION! Check out our other auctions for more great items, including other HISTORICAL Collections, President LINCOLN & WASHINGTON Writing Collectibles, WHITE HOUSE & AIR FORCE ONE Collections, AUTOGRAPHS + MANY screen worn COSTUMES & PROPS from Movies & Television. Post Office, Insured with Signature Confirmation. A RARE COLLECTION of FRAMED Donald Trump Original Autographed color PHOTO, matted in a shaded walnut Presidential FRAME with an engraved description plaque + a metal Presidential Seal… Includes the Certificate Of Authenticity (COA) from world renowned TODD MUELLER AUTOGRAPHS & UACC Registered Dealer #228 that guarantees this signature for life, A New York NEWSPAPER covering the 2017 Inauguration and a new “Make America Great Again” TRUMP campaign HAT. This item is in the category “Collectibles\Historical Memorabilia\Political\US\Presidents & First Ladies”. The seller is “jackmsell” and is located in this country: US. This item can be shipped worldwide.
  • Modified Item: Yes
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: United States
  • First Lady: Melania Trump
  • President: Donald John Trump
  • Type: Photograph
  • Term in Office: 2017-2021
  • Modification Description: Autographed color Photo
  • Signed: Yes
  • Country/Region: United States

Signed President DONALD TRUMP Autograph, COA UACC PSA/DNA Guaranteed, FRAME, HAT

President Donald Trump Autographed Photo Las Vegas with Sons 2019 With COA

president
President Donald Trump Autographed Photo Las Vegas with Sons 2019 With COA
President Donald Trump Autographed Photo Las Vegas with Sons 2019 With COA
President Donald Trump Autographed Photo Las Vegas with Sons 2019 With COA
President Donald Trump Autographed Photo Las Vegas with Sons 2019 With COA
President Donald Trump Autographed Photo Las Vegas with Sons 2019 With COA
President Donald Trump Autographed Photo Las Vegas with Sons 2019 With COA
President Donald Trump Autographed Photo Las Vegas with Sons 2019 With COA

President Donald Trump Autographed Photo Las Vegas with Sons 2019 With COA
President Donald Trump Autographed Color Photo Las Vegas Nevada with Sons 2019 Framed With COA 107202. This item is in the category “Collectibles\Autographs\Political\Presidential”. The seller is “jjlrice” and is located in this country: US. This item can be shipped worldwide.
  • President: Donald Trump
  • Signed: Yes
  • Autograph Authentication: AEU
  • Original/Reproduction: Original
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: United States
  • Modified Item: No

President Donald Trump Autographed Photo Las Vegas with Sons 2019 With COA

FLORVIL HYPPOLITE Haitian president signed autograph Haiti scarce Panama M Tombe

florvil
FLORVIL HYPPOLITE Haitian president signed autograph Haiti scarce Panama M Tombe
FLORVIL HYPPOLITE Haitian president signed autograph Haiti scarce Panama M Tombe
FLORVIL HYPPOLITE Haitian president signed autograph Haiti scarce Panama M Tombe
FLORVIL HYPPOLITE Haitian president signed autograph Haiti scarce Panama M Tombe

FLORVIL HYPPOLITE Haitian president signed autograph Haiti scarce Panama M Tombe
1894 FLORVIL HYPPOLITE Haitian president signed autograph VERY FRAGILE POOR SHAPE DOCUMENT MEASURING 8.5X13 INCHES Haiti scarce Panama M Tombe. Louis Mondestin Florvil Hyppolite was a general who served as the President of Haiti from 17 October 1889 to 24 March 1896. Louis Mondestin Florvil Hyppolite (May 26, 1828 – March 24, 1896) was a general who served as the President of Haiti from 17 October 1889 to 24 March 1896. Early life and career. Hyppolite was born in 1827 at Cap-Haïtien to a good Haitian family of mixed French and African descent. [1] He was well educated and entered politics in the presidential campaign of Faustin Soulouque. [1] During the revolution of 1865 he distinguished himself as a soldier. [1] After the war he went back to local politics and did not figure in public life until the overthrow of President Lysius Salomon by General François Denys Légitime in 1888. [1] He then was a leader under General Seïde Thélémaque in the northern part of the republic. In 1889 he headed a revolt against President Légitime. On October 9, 1889, Hyppolite was elected to a seven-year term as president of Haiti by the Constituent Assembly, which met at Gonaives. [2] Hyppolite took the oath of office on the October 17. As soon as he assumed the presidency, he had to deal with the Môle Saint-Nicolas affair, a diplomatic incident in which the United States attempted to acquire Môle Saint-Nicolas through intimidation. [2] The US dispatched a fleet to Port-au-Prince in a show of force, which provoked a protest throughout Haiti. [2] President Hyppolite was forced to assume a firm anti-American stance particularly given that he was suspected of being in sympathy with the Americans. [2] Anténor Firmin, then Haitian Secretary of State for Exterior Relations, refused to grant any territory to the Americans, citing the Constitution of Haiti, which forbade the alienation of any portion of the territory. The Môle Saint-Nicolas affair once disposed of, Hyppolite’s government had to come to an understanding with the French legation at Port-au-Prince concerning its recent practice of granting naturalizations on Haitian territory. [2] Natives of Haiti who claimed to be of French descent would go to the legation and have themselves registered as French citizens. [2] The Haitian Secretary of State of Foreign Relations undertook to put an end to this practice. [2] After drawn-out negotiations, France at last yielded; it ordered its Minister at Port-au-Prince to cancel the names of all those who had not had the right to have them registered. Former president François Denys Légitime, who had fled to Jamaica, instigated a number of uprisings against Hyppolite, which Hyppolite successfully repressed. [1] To prevent future uprisings, he executed their leaders. [1] It was his policy to exclude foreigners from the island as he claimed they stirred up insurrections. Nonetheless, Hyppolite held friendly intercourse with all foreign powers. [2] In 1892 the Vatican proved its good will toward the Republic of Haiti in accrediting a Delegate and Envoy Extraordinary to Port-au-Prince. [2] Wanting to extend its commerce and make its products known abroad, Haiti took part in the Chicago Exposition, where it won many high prizes. President Hyppolite devoted his earnest attention to the public works of the country. [2] Wharves were built in several ports; large markets were erected in Port-au-Prince and Cap-Haitien. In several towns canals were constructed for the distribution of water to private houses. [2] Telegraph lines connected the principal towns in the Republic at about the same time that the telephone was first introduced. [2] The roads were kept in good repair; agriculture and commerce flourished. [2] It now became possible for Haiti to redeem its internal debt, upon which it was paying interest at the rate of 18 per cent per annum; for this purpose a loan of 50,000,000 francs at 6 per cent per annum was floated in Paris in 1896. [2] That was the last important act of Hyppolite’s government. By the time he was 69 years old, Hyppolite had not been in good health for some time. [2] Nonetheless, he refused to rest as he had been advised to do. [2] Against the advice of his doctor he decided to undertake a long journey to Jacmel to put down an uprising there. [2][3] He started on March 24, 1896, at three o’clock in the morning, but before he even had time to leave Port-au-Prince he fell from his horse dead, in a “fit of apoplexy”, at a short distance from the Executive Mansion. [2] His funeral took place on the March 26. Because President Hyppolite’s strong personality rather than his party kept his government in power, it was feared that his death would precipitate a revolution. [1] However, the Council of Secretaries of State took charge of the affairs of the Government until the election of his successor. [2] The new president, Tirésias Simon Sam, was elected to the vacancy April 1 by the Senate and House of Representatives, and was installed without the feared revolution coming to pass. Ouis Mondestin Florvil Hyppolite. Former President of Haiti. Louis Mondestin Florvil Hyppolite was the President of Haiti from 17 October 1889 to 24 March 1896. Early life and education. Louis Mondestin Florvil Hyppolite was born on 26 May 1828 in Cap-Haïtien, Haiti. He was a career soldier, a general. He was installed as president by a constitutional council. Hyppolite died of a heart attack while in office on 24 March 1896,, while traveling to address a civilian revolt in the city of Jacmel. A tale of Haitian folklore describes how Hyppolite’s hat fell off his head before arriving to Jacmel that day, something that was considered a bad omen among everyday Haitians. The incident is remembered in the Haitian children song “Panama M’ Tombé”, which is still sung to this day. We strive for accuracy and fairness. How to Reference Our Site. To reference our site, please use the following as a general guideline. Title of Web Page. MLA: Title of Web Page. KnowledgeWalk Institute, (date published). Chicago: “Title of Web Page, ” KnowledgeWalk Institute, last modified (date), URL. Ti/ (About this soundlisten); Haitian Creole: Ayiti [ajiti]; French: Haïti a. Iti, officially the Republic of Haiti (French: République d’Haïti; Haitian Creole: Repiblik d Ayiti), [11] and formerly known as Hayti, [note 1] is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, to the east of Cuba and Jamaica and south of The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands. It occupies the western three-eighths of the island which it shares with the Dominican Republic. [17][18] To its south-west lies the small island of Navassa Island, which is claimed by Haiti but is disputed as a United States territory under federal administration. [19][20] Haiti is 27,750 square kilometers (10,714 sq mi) in size, the third largest country in the Caribbean by area, and has an estimated population of 11.4 million, [6][7] making it the most populous country in the Caribbean. The island was originally inhabited by the indigenous Taíno people, who originated in South America. [21] The first Europeans arrived on 5 December 1492 during the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, who initially believed he had found India or China. [22] Columbus subsequently founded the first European settlement in the Americas, La Navidad, on what is now the northeastern coast of Haiti. [23][24][25][26] The island was claimed by Spain and named La Española, forming part of the Spanish Empire until the early 17th century. However, competing claims and settlements by the French led to the western portion of the island being ceded to France in 1697, which was subsequently named Saint-Domingue. French colonists established lucrative sugarcane plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves brought from Africa, which made the colony one of the richest in the world. After 12 years of conflict, Napoleon Bonaparte’s forces were defeated by Louverture’s successor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines (later Emperor Jacques I), who declared Haiti’s sovereignty on 1 January 1804-the first independent nation of Latin America and the Caribbean, the second republic in the Americas, the first country to abolish slavery, and the only state in history established by a successful slave revolt. [27][28] Apart from Alexandre Pétion, the first President of the Republic, all of Haiti’s first leaders were former slaves. [29] After a brief period in which the country was split in two, President Jean-Pierre Boyer united the country and then attempted to bring the whole of Hispaniola under Haitian control, precipitating a long series of wars that ended in the 1870s when Haiti formally recognized the independence of the Dominican Republic. Political volatility and foreign economic influence in the country prompted the U. To occupy the country from 1915 to 1934. Following a series of short-lived presidencies, François’Papa Doc’ Duvalier took power in 1956, ushering in a long period of autocratic rule that was continued by his son Jean-Claude’Baby Doc’ Duvalier that lasted until 1986; the period was characterized by state-sanctioned violence against the opposition and civilians, corruption, and economic stagnation. After 1986, Haiti began attempting to establish a more democratic political system. Haiti is a founding member of the United Nations, Organization of American States (OAS), [30] Association of Caribbean States, [31] and the International Francophonie Organisation. In addition to CARICOM, it is a member of the International Monetary Fund, [32] World Trade Organization, [33] and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. Historically poor and politically unstable, Haiti has the lowest Human Development Index in the Americas. Since the turn of the 21st century, the country has endured a coup d’état, which prompted a U. Intervention, as well as a catastrophic earthquake that killed over 250,000. Loss of the Spanish portion of the island. Late 19th century-early 20th century. Law enforcement and crime. Water supply and sanitation. Y-chromosome and mitochondrial DNA. National holidays and festivals. Notable natives and residents. The name Haiti (or Hayti) comes from the indigenous Taíno language which was the native name[note 2] given to the entire island of Hispaniola to mean, land of high mountains. [37] The h is silent in French and the ï in Haïti has a diacritical mark used to show that the second vowel is pronounced separately, as in the word naïve. [38] In English, this rule for the pronunciation is often disregarded, thus the spelling Haiti is used. There are different anglicizations for its pronunciation such as HIGH-ti, high-EE-ti and haa-EE-ti, which are still in use, but HAY-ti is the most widespread and best-established. [39] The name was restored by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines as the official name of independent Saint-Domingue, as a tribute to the Amerindian predecessors. In French, Haiti’s nickname is the “Pearl of the Antilles” (La Perle des Antilles) because of both its natural beauty, [41] and the amount of wealth it accumulated for the Kingdom of France; during the 18th century the colony was the world’s leading producer of sugar and coffee. Main article: History of Haiti. Main article: Chiefdoms of Hispaniola. The five caciquedoms of Hispaniola at the time of the arrival of Christopher Columbus. The island of Hispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western three-eighths, [17][18] has been inhabited since about 5000 BC by groups of Native Americans thought to have arrived from Central or South America. [20] Genetic studies show that some of these groups were related to the Yanomami of the Amazon Basin. [21][43] Amongst these early settlers were the Ciboney peoples, followed by the Taíno, speakers of an Arawakan language, elements of which have been preserved in Haitian Creole. The Taíno name for the entire island was Haiti, or alternatively Quisqeya. In Taíno society the largest unit of political organization was led by a cacique, or chief, as the Europeans understood them. The island of Hipaniola was divided among five’caciquedoms': the Magua in the north east, the Marien in the north west, the Jaragua in the south west, the Maguana in the central regions of Cibao, and the Higüey in the south east. Taíno cultural artifacts include cave paintings in several locations in the country. These have become national symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions. Modern-day Léogâne, started as a French colonial town in the southwest, is beside the former capital of the caciquedom of Xaragua. Main articles: Columbian Viceroyalty, New Spain, and Captaincy General of Santo Domingo. Engraving of Christopher Columbus landing on Hispaniola, by Theodor de Bry. Navigator Christopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 6 December 1492, in an area that he named Môle-Saint-Nicolas, [48] and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile. Columbus left 39 men on the island, who founded the settlement of La Navidad on 25 December 1492. [20] Relations with the native peoples, initially good, broke down and the settlers were later killed by the Taíno. 1510 Taíno pictograph telling a story of missionaries arriving in Hispaniola. The sailors carried endemic Eurasian infectious diseases to which the native peoples lacked immunity, causing them to die in great numbers in epidemics. [50][51] The first recorded smallpox epidemic in the Americas erupted on Hispaniola in 1507. [52] Their numbers were further reduced by the harshness of the encomienda system, in which the Spanish forced natives to work in gold mines and plantations. The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos, 1512-13, which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism, [54] and gave legal framework to encomiendas. The natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries. As the Spanish re-focused their colonization efforts on the greater riches of mainland Central and South America, Hispaniola became reduced largely to a trading and refueling post. As a result piracy became widespread, encouraged by European powers hostile to Spain such as France (based on Île de la Tortue) and England. [49] The Spanish largely abandoned the western third of the island, focusing their colonization effort on the eastern two-thirds. [56][20] The western part of the island was thus gradually settled by French buccaneers; among them was Bertrand d’Ogeron, who succeeded in growing tobacco and recruited many French colonial families from Martinique and Guadeloupe. [57] In 1697 France and Spain settled their hostilities on the island by way of the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, which divided Hispaniola between them. Main articles: Saint-Domingue and French West Indies. France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of Santo Domingo, the Spanish colony on Hispaniola. [59] The French set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves imported from Africa, and Saint-Domingue grew to become their richest colonial possession. The French settlers were outnumbered by slaves by almost 10 to 1. [58] According to the 1788 Census, Haiti’s population consisted of nearly 25,000 Europeans, 22,000 free coloreds and 700,000 African slaves. [60] In contrast, by 1763 the white population of French Canada, a far larger territory, had numbered only 65,000. [61] In the north of the island, slaves were able to retain many ties to African cultures, religion and language; these ties were continually being renewed by newly imported Africans. Some West African slaves held on to their traditional Vodou beliefs by secretly syncretizing it with Catholicism. The French enacted the Code Noir (“Black Code”), prepared by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and ratified by Louis XIV, which established rules on slave treatment and permissible freedoms. [62] Saint-Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years. [63] Many slaves died from diseases such as smallpox and typhoid fever. [64] They had low birth rates, [65] and there is evidence that some women aborted fetuses rather than give birth to children within the bonds of slavery. [66] The colony’s environment also suffered, as forests were cleared to make way for plantations and the land was overworked so as to extract maximum profit for French plantation owners. Saint-Domingue slave revolt in 1791. As in its Louisiana colony, the French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color (gens de couleur), the mixed-race descendants of European male colonists and African female slaves (and later, mixed-race women). [58] Over time, many were released from slavery and they established a separate social class. White French Creole fathers frequently sent their mixed-race sons to France for their education. Some men of color were admitted into the military. More of the free people of color lived in the south of the island, near Port-au-Prince, and many intermarried within their community. [58] They frequently worked as artisans and tradesmen, and began to own some property, including slaves of their own. [20][58] The free people of color petitioned the colonial government to expand their rights. The brutality of slave life led many slaves to escape to mountainous regions, where they set up their own autonomous communities and became known as Maroons. [20] One Maroon leader, François Mackandal, led a rebellion in the 1750s, however he was later captured and executed by the French. Main article: Haitian Revolution. Inspired by the French Revolution of 1789 and principles of the rights of man, the French settlers and free people of color pressed for greater political freedom and more civil rights. [62] Tensions between these two groups led to conflict, as a militia of free-coloreds was set up in 1790 by Vincent Ogé, resulting in his capture, torture and execution. [20] Sensing an opportunity, in August 1791 the first slave armies were established in northern Haiti under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture inspired by the Vodou houngan (priest) Boukman, and backed by the Spanish in Santo Domingo – soon a full-blown slave rebellion had broken out across the entire colony. In 1792, the French government sent three commissioners with troops to re-establish control; to build an alliance with the gens de couleur and slaves commissioners Léger-Félicité Sonthonax and Étienne Polverel abolished slavery in the colony. [62] Six months later, the National Convention, led by Maximilien de Robespierre and the Jacobins, endorsed abolition and extended it to all the French colonies. Political leaders in the United States, which was a new republic itself, reacted with ambivalence, at times providing aid to enable planters to put down the revolt. Later in the revolution, the US provided support to native Haitian military forces, with the goal of reducing French influence in North America and the Caribbean. With slavery abolished, Toussaint Louverture pledged allegiance to France, and he fought off the British and Spanish forces who had taken advantage of the situation and invaded Saint-Domingue. [70][71] The Spanish were later forced to cede their part of the island to France under the terms of the Peace of Basel in 1795, uniting the island under one government. [72][73] Many surviving free people of color left the island as refugees. Battle between Polish troops in French service and the Haitian rebels. The majority of Polish soldiers eventually deserted the French army and fought alongside the Haitians. After Louverture created a separatist constitution and proclaimed himself governor-general for life, Napoléon Bonaparte in 1802 sent an expedition of 20,000 soldiers and as many sailors[74] under the command of his brother-in-law, Charles Leclerc, to reassert French control. The French achieved some victories, but within a few months most of their army had died from yellow fever. [75] Ultimately more than 50,000 French troops died in an attempt to retake the colony, including 18 generals. [76] The French managed to capture Louverture, transporting him to France for trial. He was imprisoned at Fort de Joux, where he died in 1803 of exposure and possibly tuberculosis. The slaves, along with free gens de couleur and allies, continued their fight for independence, led by generals Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Alexandre Pétion and Henry Christophe. [77] The rebels finally managed to decisively defeat the French troops at the Battle of Vertières on 18 November 1803, establishing the first nation ever to successfully gain independence through a slave revolt. [78] Under the overall command of Dessalines, the Haitian armies avoided open battle, and instead conducted a successful guerrilla campaign against the Napoleonic forces, working with diseases such as yellow fever to reduce the numbers of French soldiers. [77] It has been estimated that between 24,000 and 100,000 Europeans, and between 100,000 and 350,000 Haitian ex-slaves, died in the revolution. [80] In the process, Dessalines became arguably the most successful military commander in the struggle against Napoleonic France. Main articles: First Empire of Haiti and 1804 Haiti massacre. Pétion and Dessalines swearing allegiance to each other before God; painting by Guillon-Lethière. The independence of Saint-Domingue was proclaimed under the native name’Haiti’ by Dessalines on 1 January 1804 in Gonaïves[82][83] and he was proclaimed “Emperor for Life” as Emperor Jacques I by his troops. [84] Dessalines at first offered protection to the white planters and others. [85] However, once in power, he ordered the massacre of nearly all the remaining white men, women, children; between January and April 1804, 3,000 to 5,000 whites were killed, including those who had been friendly and sympathetic to the black population. [86] Only three categories of white people were selected out as exceptions and spared: Polish soldiers, the majority of whom had deserted from the French army and fought alongside the Haitian rebels; the small group of German colonists invited to the north-west region; and a group of medical doctors and professionals. [87] Reportedly, people with connections to officers in the Haitian army were also spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men. Fearful of the potential impact the slave rebellion could have in the slave states, U. President Thomas Jefferson refused to recognize the new republic. The Southern politicians who were a powerful voting bloc in the American Congress prevented U. Recognition for decades until they withdrew in 1861 to form the Confederacy. The revolution led to a wave of emigration. [90] In 1809, 9,000 refugees from Saint-Domingue, both white planters and people of color, settled en masse in New Orleans, doubling the city’s population, having been expelled from their initial refuge in Cuba by Spanish authorities. [91] In addition, the newly arrived slaves added to the city’s African population. The plantation system was reestablished in Haiti, albeit for wages, however many Haitians were marginalized and resented the heavy-handed manner in which this was enforced in the new nation’s politics. [77] The rebel movement splintered, and Dessalines was assassinated by rivals on 17 October 1806. Main articles: State of Haiti and Kingdom of Haiti. Citadelle Laferrière, built 1805-22, is the largest fortress in the Americas, and is considered locally to be the eighth wonder of the world. After Dessalines’ death Haiti became split into two, with the Kingdom of Haiti in the north directed by Henri Christophe, later declaring himself Henri I, and a republic in the south centred on Port-au-Prince, directed by Alexandre Pétion, an homme de couleur. [95][96][97][98][77] Christophe established a semi-feudal corvée system, with a rigid education and economic code. [99] Pétion’s republic was less absolutist, and he initiated a series of land reforms which benefited the peasant class. [77] President Pétion also gave military and financial assistance to the revolutionary leader Simón Bolívar, which were critical in enabling him to liberate the Viceroyalty of New Granada. [100] Meanwhile, the French, who had managed to maintain a precarious control of eastern Hispaniola, were defeated by insurgents led by Juan Sánchez Ramírez, with the area returning to Spanish rule in 1809 following the Battle of Palo Hincado. Beginning in 1821, President Jean-Pierre Boyer, also an homme de couleur and successor to Pétion, reunified the island following the suicide of Henry Christophe. [20][102] After Santo Domingo declared its independence from Spain on 30 November 1821, Boyer invaded, seeking to unite the entire island by force and ending slavery in Santo Domingo. Struggling to revive the agricultural economy to produce commodity crops, Boyer passed the Code Rural, which denied peasant laborers the right to leave the land, enter the towns, or start farms or shops of their own, causing much resentment as most peasants wished to have their own farms rather than work on plantations. Starting in September 1824, more than 6,000 African Americans migrated to Haiti, with transportation paid by an American philanthropic group similar in function to the American Colonization Society and its efforts in Liberia. In July 1825, King Charles X of France, during a period of restoration of the French monarchy, sent a fleet to reconquer Haiti. [20] By an order of 17 April 1826, the King of France renounced his rights of sovereignty and formally recognized the independence of Haiti. [107][108][109] The enforced payments to France hampered Haiti’s economic growth for years, exacerbated by the fact that many Western nations continued to refuse formal diplomatic recognition to Haiti; Britain recognized Haitian independence in 1833, and the United States not until 1862. [20] Haiti borrowed heavily from Western banks at extremely high interest rates to repay the debt. Although the amount of the reparations was reduced to 90 million in 1838, by 1900 80% of the country’s gross domestic product was being spent on debt repayment and the country did not finish repaying it until 1947. Main article: Dominican War of Independence. After losing the support of Haiti’s elite, Boyer was ousted in 1843, with Charles Rivière-Hérard replacing him as president. [20] Nationalist Dominican forces in eastern Hispaniola led by Juan Pablo Duarte seized control of Santo Domingo on 27 February 1844. [20] The Haitian forces, unprepared for a significant uprising, capitulated to the rebels, effectively ending Haitian rule of eastern Hispaniola. In March Rivière-Hérard attempted to reimpose his authority, but the Dominicans put up stiff opposition and inflicted heavy losses. [112] Rivière-Hérard was removed from office by the mulatto hierarchy and replaced with the aged general Philippe Guerrier, who assumed the presidency on 3 May 1844. Guerrier died in April 1845, and was succeeded by General Jean-Louis Pierrot. [113] Pierrot’s most pressing duty as the new president was to check the incursions of the Dominicans, who were harassing the Haitian troops. [113] Dominican gunboats were also making depredations on Haiti’s coasts. [113] President Pierrot decided to open a campaign against the Dominicans, whom he considered merely as insurgents, however the Haitian offensive of 1845 was stopped on the frontier. On 1 January 1846 Pierrot announced a fresh campaign to reimpose Haitian suzerainty over eastern Hispaniola, but his officers and men greeted this fresh summons with contempt. [112] Thus, a month later – February 1846 – when Pierrot ordered his troops to march against the Dominicans, the Haitian army mutinied, and its soldiers proclaimed his overthrow as president of the republic. [112] With the war against the Dominicans having become very unpopular in Haiti, it was beyond the power of the new president, General Jean-Baptiste Riché, to stage another invasion. Main article: Second Empire of Haiti. Faustin I, from The Illustrated London News, 16 February 1856. On 27 February 1847, President Riché died after only a year in power and was replaced by an obscure officer, General Faustin Soulouque. [20] During the first two years of Soulouque’s administration the conspiracies and opposition he faced in retaining power were so manifold that the Dominicans were given a further breathing space in which to consolidate their independence. [112] But, when in 1848 France finally recognized the Dominican Republic as a free and independent state and provisionally signed a treaty of peace, friendship, commerce and navigation, Haiti immediately protested, claiming the treaty was an attack upon their own security. [112] Soulouque decided to invade the new Republic before the French Government could ratify the treaty. On 21 March 1849, Haitian soldiers attacked the Dominican garrison at Las Matas. The demoralized defenders offered almost no resistance before abandoning their weapons. Soulouque pressed on, capturing San Juan. This left only the town of Azua as the remaining Dominican stronghold between the Haitian army and the capital. On 6 April, Azua fell to the 18,000-strong Haitian army, with a 5,000-man Dominican counterattack failing to oust them. [70] The way to Santo Domingo was now clear. But the news of discontent existing at Port-au-Prince, which reached Soulouque, arrested his further progress and caused him to return with the army to his capital. Emboldened by the sudden retreat of the Haitian army, the Dominicans counter-attacked. Their flotilla went as far as Dame-Marie, which they plundered and set on fire. [114] Soulouque, now self-proclaimed as Emperor Faustin I, decided to start a new campaign against them. In 1855, he again invaded the territory of the Dominican Republic. But owing to insufficient preparation, the army was soon in want of victuals and ammunition. [114] In spite of the bravery of the soldiers, the Emperor had once more to give up the idea of a unified island under Haitian control. [114] After this campaign, Britain and France intervened and obtained an armistice on behalf of the Dominicans, who declared independence as the Dominican Republic. The sufferings endured by the soldiers during the campaign of 1855, and the losses and sacrifices inflicted on the country without yielding any compensation or any practical results provoked great discontent. [114] In 1858 a revolution began, led by General Fabre Geffrard, Duke of Tabara. In December of that year, Geffrard defeated the Imperial Army and seized control of most of the country. [20] As a result, the Emperor abdicated his throne on 15 January 1859. Refused aid by the French Legation, Faustin was taken into exile aboard a British warship on 22 January 1859, and General Geffrard succeeded him as President. German Captain Thiele of the Charlotte handing over the German Ultimatum on 6 December 1897 during the Lüders Affair. The period following Soulouque’s overthrow down to the turn of the century was a turbulent one for Haiti, with repeated bouts of political instability. President Geffrard was overthrown in a coup in 1867, [115] as was his successor, Sylvain Salnave, in 1869. [116] Under the Presidency of Michel Domingue (1874-76) relations with the Dominican Republic were dramatically improved by the signing of a treaty, in which both parties acknowledged the independence of the other, bringing an end to Haitian dreams of bringing the entirety of Hispaniola under their control. Some modernisation of the economy and infrastructure also occurred in this period, especially under the Presidencies of Lysius Salomon (1879-88) and Florvil Hyppolite (1889-96). Haiti’s relations with outside powers were often strained. In 1889 the United States attempted to force Haiti to permit the building of a naval base at Môle Saint-Nicolas, which was firmly resisted by President Hyppolite. In the first decades of the 20th century, Haiti experienced great political instability and was heavily in debt to France, Germany and the United States. A series of short lived presidencies came and went: President Pierre Nord Alexis was forced from power in 1908, [120][121] as was his successor François C. Antoine Simon in 1911;[122] President Cincinnatus Leconte (1911-12) was killed in a (possibly deliberate) explosion at the National Palace;[123] Michel Oreste (1913-14) was ousted in a coup, as was his successor Oreste Zamor in 1914. Main article: United States occupation of Haiti. Marines and guide in search of Haitian Cacos fighters against the U. Occupation of Haiti, c. ? Germany increased its influence in Haiti in this period, with a small community of German settlers wielding disproportionate influence in Haiti’s economy. [125][126] The German influence prompted anxieties in the United States, who had also invested heavily in the country, and whose government defended their right to oppose foreign interference in the Americas under the Monroe Doctrine. This gave a stable financial base on which to build the economy, and so enable the debt to be repaid. In 1915, Haiti’s new President Vilbrun Guillaume Sam sought to strengthen his tenuous rule by a mass execution of 167 political prisoners. Outrage at the killings led to riots, and Sam was captured and killed by a lynch mob. [126][128] Fearing possible foreign intervention, or the emergence of a new government led by the anti-American Haitian politician Rosalvo Bobo, President Woodrow Wilson sent U. Marines into Haiti in July 1915. The USS Washington, under Rear Admiral Caperton, arrived in Port-au-Prince in an attempt to restore order and protect U. The Marines declared martial law and severely censored the press. Within weeks, a new pro-U. Haitian president, Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave, was installed and a new constitution written that was favorable to the interests of the United States. The constitution written by future US President Franklin D. Roosevelt included a clause that allowed, for the first time, foreign ownership of land in Haiti, which was bitterly opposed by the Haitian legislature and citizenry. The body of caco leader Charlemagne Péralte on display after his execution by US forces; the image was counterproductive, with the resemblance to the deposition of Jesus gaining Péralte the status of national martyr. The occupation improved some of Haiti’s infrastructure and centralized power in Port-au-Prince. [126] 1700 km of roads were made usable, 189 bridges were built, many irrigation canals were rehabilitated, hospitals, schools, and public buildings were constructed, and drinking water was brought to the main cities. [citation needed] Agricultural education was organized, with a central school of agriculture and 69 farms in the country. [130] However, many infrastructure projects were built using the corvée system that allowed the government/occupying forces to take people from their homes and farms, at gunpoint if necessary, to build roads, bridges etc. By force, a process that was deeply resented by ordinary Haitians. [131][126] Sisal was also introduced to Haiti, and sugarcane and cotton became significant exports, boosting prosperity. [132] Haitian traditionalists, based in rural areas, were highly resistant to U. Backed changes, while the urban elites, typically mixed-race, welcomed the growing economy, but wanted more political control. [20] Together they helped secure an end to the occupation in 1934, under the Presidency of Sténio Vincent (1930-41). [20][133] The debts were still outstanding, though less due to increased prosperity, and the U. Financial advisor-general receiver handled the budget until 1941. Marines were instilled with a special brand of paternalism towards Haitians expressed in the metaphor of a father’s relationship with his children. [135] Armed opposition to the US presence was led by the cacos under the command of Charlemagne Péralte; his capture and execution in 1919 earned him the status of a national martyr. [136][20][126] During Senate hearings in 1921, the commandant of the Marine Corps reported that, in the 20 months of active unrest, 2,250 Haitians had been killed. However, in a report to the Secretary of the Navy, he reported the death toll as being 3,250. [137] Haitian historians have claimed the true number was much higher, but this is not supported by most historians outside Haiti. Recognition of the distinctive traditionalism of the Haitian people had an influence on American writers, including Eugene O’Neill, James Weldon Johnson, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston and Orson Welles. After US forces left in 1934, Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo used anti-Haitian sentiment as a nationalist tool. In an event that became known as the Parsley Massacre, he ordered his army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border. [140][141] Few bullets were used – instead, 20,000-30,000 Haitians were bludgeoned and bayoneted, then herded into the sea, where sharks finished what Trujillo had begun. [142] Congressman Hamilton Fish, ranking member of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, called the Parsley Massacre the most outrageous atrocity that has ever been perpetrated on the American continent. President Vincent became increasingly dictatorial, and resigned under US pressure in 1941, being replaced by Élie Lescot (1941-46). [144] In 1941, during the Second World War, Lescot declared war on Japan (8 December), Germany (12 December), Italy (12 December), Bulgaria (24 December), Hungary (24 December) and Romania (24 December). [145] Out of these six Axis countries, only Romania reciprocated, declaring war on Haiti on the same day (24 December 1941). [146] On 27 September 1945, [147] Haiti became a founding member of the United Nations (the successor to the League of Nations, of which Haiti was also a founding member). In 1946 Lescot was overthrown by the military, with Dumarsais Estimé later becoming the new president (1946-50). [20] He sought to improve the economy and education, and to boost the role of black Haitians, however as he sought to consolidate his rule he too was overthrown in a coup led by Paul Magloire, who replaced him as president (1950-56). [20][150] Firmly anti-Communist, he was supported by the United States; with greater political stability tourists started to visit Haiti. Celebrities such as Truman Capote and Noël Coward visited Haiti; the era is captured in Graham Greene’s 1966 novel The Comedians. Main article: Duvalier dynasty. “Papa Doc” Duvalier in 1968. In 1956-57 Haiti underwent severe political turmoil; Magloire was forced to resign and leave the country in 1956 and he was followed by four short-lived presidencies. [20] In the September 1957 election Dr. François Duvalier was elected President of Haiti. Known as’Papa Doc’ and initially popular, Duvalier remained President until his death in 1971. [153] He advanced black interests in the public sector, where over time, people of color had predominated as the educated urban elite. [20][154] Not trusting the army, despite his frequent purges of officers deemed disloyal, Duvalier created a private militia known as Tontons Macoutes (“Bogeymen”), which maintained order by terrorizing the populace and political opponents. [153][155] In 1964 Duvalier proclaimed himself’President for Life'; an uprising against his rule that year in Jérémie was violently suppressed, with the ringleaders publicly executed and hundreds of mixed-raced citizens in the town killed. [153] The bulk of the educated and professional class began leaving the country, and corruption became widespread. [20][153] Duvalier sought to create a personality cult, identifying himself with Baron Samedi, one of the loa (or lwa), or spirits, of Haitian Vodou. Despite the well-publicized abuses under his rule, Duvalier’s firm anti-Communism earned him the support of the Americans, who furnished the country with aid. In 1971 Duvalier died, and he was succeeded by his son Jean-Claude Duvalier, nicknamed’Baby Doc’, who ruled until 1986. [157][153] He largely continued his father’s policies, though curbed some of the worst excesses in order to court international respectability. [20] Tourism, which had nosedived in Papa Doc’s time, again became a growing industry. [152] However as the economy continued to decline Baby Doc’s grip on power began to weaken. Haiti’s pig population was slaughtered following an outbreak of swine fever in the late 1970s, causing hardship to rural communities who used them as an investment. [20][158] The opposition became more vocal, bolstered by a visit to the country by Pope John Paul II in 1983, who publicly lambasted the president. [159] Demonstrations occurred in Gonaïves in 1985 which then spread across the country; under pressure from the United States, Duvalier left the country for France in February 1986. In total, roughly 40,000 to 60,000 Haitians are estimated to have been killed during the reign of the Duvaliers. [160] Through the use of his intimidation tactics and executions, many intellectual Haitians had fled, leaving the country with a massive brain-drain that it has yet to recover from. Following Duvalier’s departure, army leader General Henri Namphy headed a new National Governing Council. [20] Elections scheduled for November 1987 were aborted after dozens of inhabitants were shot in the capital by soldiers and Tontons Macoutes. [162][20] Fraudulent elections followed in 1988, in which only 4% of the citizenry voted. [163][20] The newly elected President, Leslie Manigat, was then overthrown some months later in the June 1988 Haitian coup d’état. [20][164] Another coup followed in September 1988, after the St. Jean Bosco massacre in which 13-50 people (estimates vary) attending a mass led by prominent government critic and Catholic priest Jean-Bertrand Aristide were killed. [164][165] General Prosper Avril subsequently led a military regime until March 1990. Led invasion in 1994 designed to remove the regime installed by the 1991 Haitian coup d’état. In December 1990 Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected President in the Haitian general election. However his ambitious reformist agenda worried the elites, and in September of the following year he was overthrown by the military, led by Raoul Cédras, in the 1991 Haitian coup d’état. [20][168] Amidst the continuing turmoil many Haitians attempted to flee the country. In September 1994, the United States negotiated the departure of Haiti’s military leaders and the peaceful entry of 20,000 US troops under Operation Uphold Democracy. [169][170] As part of the deal Aristide had to implement free market reforms in an attempt to improve the Haitian economy, with mixed results, some sources stating that these reforms had a negative impact on native Haitian industry. [171][20] In November 1994, Hurricane Gordon brushed Haiti, dumping heavy rain and creating flash flooding that triggered mudslides. Gordon killed an estimated 1,122 people, although some estimates go as high as 2,200. Elections were held in 1995 which were won by René Préval, gaining 88% of the popular vote, albeit on a low turnout. [176] The election had been boycotted by the opposition, then organized into the Convergence Démocratique, over a dispute in the May legislative elections. In subsequent years, there was increasing violence between rival political factions and human rights abuses. [177][178] Aristide spent years negotiating with the Convergence Démocratique on new elections, but the Convergence’s inability to develop a sufficient electoral base made elections unattractive. In 2004 an anti-Aristide revolt began in northern Haiti. The rebellion eventually reached the capital, and Aristide was forced into exile. [177][20] The precise nature of the events are disputed; some, including Aristide and his bodyguard, Franz Gabriel, stated that he was the victim of a “new coup d’état or modern kidnapping” by U. Aristide stated that the kidnappers wore U. Special Forces uniforms, but changed into civilian clothes upon boarding the aircraft that was used to remove Aristide from Haiti. [179][180] These charges were denied by the US government. [181][177] As political violence and crime continued to grow, a United Nations Stabilisation Mission (MINUSTAH) was brought in to maintain order. [182] However MINUSTAH proved controversial, as their at times heavy-handed approach to maintaining law and order and several instances of abuses, including the alleged sexual abuse of civilians, provoked resentment and distrust amongst ordinary Haitians. [183][184][20] Boniface Alexandre assumed interim authority until 2006, when René Préval was re-elected President following elections. Amidst the continuing political chaos, a series of natural disasters hit Haiti. In 2004 Tropical Storm Jeanne skimmed the north coast, leaving 3,006 people dead in flooding and mudslides, mostly in the city of Gonaïves. [186] In 2008 Haiti was again struck by tropical storms; Tropical Storm Fay, Hurricane Gustav, Hurricane Hanna and Hurricane Ike all produced heavy winds and rain, resulting in 331 deaths and about 800,000 in need of humanitarian aid. [187] The state of affairs produced by these storms was intensified by already high food and fuel prices that had caused a food crisis and political unrest in April 2008. The Haitian National Palace, located in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, heavily damaged after the earthquake of 2010. This was originally a two-story structure; the second story completely collapsed. On 12 January 2010, at 4:53pm local time, Haiti was struck by a magnitude-7.0 earthquake. This was the country’s most severe earthquake in over 200 years. [190] The earthquake was reported to have left between 220,000 and 300,000 people dead and up to 1.6 million homeless. [191][192] The situation was exacerbated by a subsequent massive cholera outbreak that was triggered when cholera-infected waste from a United Nations peacekeeping station contaminated the country’s main river, the Artibonite. [182][193][194] In 2017, it was reported that roughly 10,000 Haitians had died and nearly a million had been made ill. After years of denial the United Nations apologized in 2016, but as of 2017, they have refused to acknowledge fault, thus avoiding financial responsibility. General elections had been planned for January 2010 but were postponed due to the earthquake. [20] Elections were held on 28 November 2010 for the senate, the parliament and the first round of the presidential elections. The run-off between Michel Martelly and Mirlande Manigat took place on 20 March 2011, and preliminary results, released on 4 April, named Michel Martelly the winner. [198][199][200][196] In 2013, Haiti called for European nations to pay reparations for slavery and establish an official commission for the settlement of past wrongdoings. [201][202] Meanwhile, after continuing political wrangling with the opposition and allegations of electoral fraud, Martelly agreed to step down in 2016 without a successor in place. [196][203] An interim president, Jocelerme Privert, then took office. [20] After numerous postponements, partly owing to the effects of devastating Hurricane Matthew, elections were eventually held in November 2016. [204][205] The victor, Jovenel Moïse of the Haitian Tèt Kale Party, was subsequently sworn in as president in 2017. Over time these protests evolved into demands for the resignation of president Moïse. On 7 July 2021, President Moïse was assassinated in an attack on his private residence, and First Lady Martine Moïse was hospitalized following the overnight attack. [209] The United Nations special envoy for Haiti, Helen La Lime, said on 8 July 2021 that interim Prime Minister Claude Joseph, as Acting President, will lead Haiti until an election is held later in the year, urging all parties to set aside differences. [210] Claude Joseph’s presidency is disputed with Senate Leader Joseph Lambert. [211] The United Nations recognizes Claude Joseph as the legitimate Acting President. [212] Haitian officials have asked the United States to send troops to help stabilize the country and protect vital infrastructure. On 19 July 2021, Claude Joseph stepped down as Acting President, transferring the power to rival Ariel Henry. Main article: Geography of Haiti. Topographical map of Haiti. Haiti forms the western three-eighths of Hispaniola, the second largest island in the Greater Antilles. At 27,750 sq km Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean behind Cuba and the Dominican Republic, the latter sharing a 360-kilometre (224 mi) border with Haiti. The country has a roughly horseshoe shape and because of this it has a disproportionately long coastline, second in length (1,771 km or 1,100 mi) behind Cuba in the Greater Antilles. Haiti is the most mountainous nation in the Caribbean, its terrain consists of mountains interspersed with small coastal plains and river valleys. [19] The climate is tropical, with some variation depending on altitude. The highest point is Pic la Selle, at 2,680 metres (8,793 ft). The northern region consists of the Massif du Nord (Northern Massif) and the Plaine du Nord (Northern Plain). The Massif du Nord is an extension of the Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic. [20] It begins at Haiti’s eastern border, north of the Guayamouc River, and extends to the northwest through the northern peninsula. The lowlands of the Plaine du Nord lie along the northern border with the Dominican Republic, between the Massif du Nord and the North Atlantic Ocean. The central region consists of two plains and two sets of mountain ranges. The Plateau Central (Central Plateau) extends along both sides of the Guayamouc River, south of the Massif du Nord. It runs from the southeast to the northwest. To the southwest of the Plateau Central are the Montagnes Noires, whose most northwestern part merges with the Massif du Nord. Haiti’s most important valley in terms of crops is the Plaine de l’Artibonite, which lies between the Montagnes Noires and the Chaîne des Matheux. [20] This region supports the country’s (also Hispaniola’s) longest river, the Riviere l’Artibonite, which begins in the western region of the Dominican Republic and continues for most of its length through central Haiti, where it then empties into the Golfe de la Gonâve. [20] Also in this valley lies Haiti’s second largest lake, Lac de Péligre, formed as a result of the construction of the Péligre Dam in the mid-1950s. Saint-Marc Arrondissement, Artibonite Deparment. The southern region consists of the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac (the southeast) and the mountainous southern peninsula (also known as the Tiburon Peninsula). The Plaine du Cul-de-Sac is a natural depression that harbors the country’s saline lakes, such as Trou Caïman and Haiti’s largest lake, Étang Saumatre. The Chaîne de la Selle mountain range – an extension of the southern mountain chain of the Dominican Republic (the Sierra de Baoruco) – extends from the Massif de la Selle in the east to the Massif de la Hotte in the west. Haiti also includes several offshore islands. The island of Tortuga (Île de la Tortue) is located off the coast of northern Haiti. The arrondissement of La Gonâve is located on the island of the same name, in the Golfe de la Gonâve; Haiti’s largest island, Gonâve is moderately populated by rural villagers. Île à Vache (Cow Island) is located off the southwest coast; also part of Haiti are the Cayemites, located in the Gulf of Gonâve north of Pestel. La Navasse (Navassa Island), located 40 nautical miles (46 mi; 74 km) west of Jérémie on the south west peninsula of Haiti, [218] is subject to an ongoing territorial dispute with the United States, who currently administer the island via the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Köppen climate types of Haiti. Haiti’s climate is tropical with some variation depending on altitude. [19] Port-au-Prince ranges in January from an average minimum of 23 °C (73.4 °F) to an average maximum of 31 °C (87.8 °F); in July, from 25-35 °C (77-95 °F). The rainfall pattern is varied, with rain heavier in some of the lowlands and the northern and eastern slopes of the mountains. Haiti’s dry season occurs from November to January. Port-au-Prince receives an average annual rainfall of 1,370 mm (53.9 in). There are two rainy seasons, April-June and October-November. Haiti is subject to periodic droughts and floods, made more severe by deforestation. Hurricanes are a menace, and the country is also prone to drought, flooding and earthquakes. There are blind thrust faults associated with the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault system over which Haiti lies. [220] After the earthquake of 2010, there was no evidence of surface rupture and geologists’ findings were based on seismological, geological and ground deformation data. The northern boundary of the fault is where the Caribbean tectonic plate shifts eastwards by about 20 mm (0.79 inches) per year in relation to the North American plate. The strike-slip fault system in the region has two branches in Haiti, the Septentrional-Oriente fault in the north and the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault in the south. A 2007 earthquake hazard study, noted that the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone could be at the end of its seismic cycle and concluded that a worst-case forecast would involve a 7.2 Mw earthquake, similar in size to the 1692 Jamaica earthquake. [222] A study team presented a hazard assessment of the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault system to the 18th Caribbean Geologic Conference in March 2008, noting the large strain. The team recommended “high priority” historical geologic rupture studies, as the fault was fully locked and had recorded few earthquakes in the preceding 40 years. [223] An article published in Haiti’s Le Matin newspaper in September 2008 cited comments by geologist Patrick Charles to the effect that there was a high risk of major seismic activity in Port-au-Prince;[224] and duly the magnitude 7.0 2010 Haiti earthquake happened on this fault zone on 12 January 2010. Haiti also has rare elements such as gold, which can be found at The Mont Organisé gold mine. Main articles: Environment of Haiti and Deforestation in Haiti. Haiti’s border with the Dominican Republic in 2002, showing the extent of deforestation on the Haitian side (left). The soil erosion released from the upper catchments and deforestation have caused periodic and severe flooding in Haiti, as experienced, for example, on 17 September 2004. Earlier in May that year, floods had killed over 3,000 people on Haiti’s southern border with the Dominican Republic. Haiti’s forests covered 60% of the country as recently as 50 years ago, but that has been halved to a current estimate of 30% tree cover, according to more recent environmental analysis. This estimate poses a stark difference from the erroneous figure of 2% which has been oft-cited in discourse concerning the country’s environmental condition. [227] Haiti had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.01/10, ranking it 137th globally out of 172 countries. Scientists at the Columbia University’s Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN) and the United Nations Environment Programme are working on the Haiti Regenerative Initiative an initiative aiming to reduce poverty and natural disaster vulnerability in Haiti through ecosystem restoration and sustainable resource management. Main article: Wildlife of Haiti. The endangered Hispaniolan solenodon, endemic to the island. Haiti is home to four ecoregions: Hispaniolan moist forests, Hispaniolan dry forests, Hispaniolan pine forests, and Greater Antilles mangroves. Despite its small size, Haiti’s mountainous terrain and resultant multiple climactic zones has resulted in a wide variety of plant life. [231] Notable tree species include the breadfruit tree, mango tree, acacia, mahogany, coconut palm, royal palm and West Indian cedar. [231] The forests were formerly much more extensive, but have been subject to severe deforestation. Most mammal species are not native, having been brought to the island since colonial times. [231] However there are various native bat species, as well as the endemic Hispaniolan hutia and Hispaniolan solenodon. [231] Various whale and dolphin species can also be found off Haiti’s coast. There are over 260 species of bird, 31 of these being endemic to Hispaniola. [232] Notable endemic species include the Hispaniolan trogon, Hispaniolan parakeet, grey-crowned tanager and the Hispaniolan Amazon. [232] There are also several raptor species, as well as pelicans, ibis, hummingbirds and ducks. Reptiles are common, with species such as the rhinoceros iguana, Haitian boa, American crocodile and gecko. Main article: Politics of Haiti. Jovenel Moïse was the President of Haiti until he was assassinated on 7 July 2021. The government of Haiti is a semi-presidential republic, a multiparty system wherein the president of Haiti is head of state elected directly by popular elections held every five years. [20][234] The prime minister of Haiti acts as head of government and is appointed by the president, chosen from the majority party in the National Assembly. [20] Executive power is exercised by the president and prime minister who together constitute the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Assembly of Haiti, the Senate (Sénat) and the Chamber of Deputies (Chambre des Députés). [20][19] The government is organized unitarily, thus the central government delegates powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti’s political system was set forth in the Constitution of Haiti on 29 March 1987. Haitian politics have been contentious: since independence, Haiti has suffered 32 coups. [235] Haiti is the only country in the Western Hemisphere to undergo a successful slave revolution; however, a long history of oppression by dictators such as François Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude Duvalier has markedly affected the nation. Since the end of the Duvalier era Haiti has been transitioning to a democratic system. Main article: Administrative divisions of Haiti. Administratively, Haiti is divided into ten departments. [19] The departments are listed below, with the departmental capital cities in parentheses. The departments are further divided into 42 arrondissements, 145 communes and 571 communal sections. These serve as, respectively, second- and third-level administrative divisions. Main article: Foreign relations of Haiti. Haiti is a member of a wide range of international and regional organizations, such as the United Nations, CARICOM, Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, International Monetary Fund, Organisation of American States, Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, OPANAL and the World Trade Organization. In February 2012, Haiti signaled it would seek to upgrade its observer status to full associate member status of the African Union (AU). [239] The AU was reported to be planning to upgrade Haiti’s status from observer to associate at its June 2013 summit[240] but the application had still not been ratified by May 2016. Main article: Military of Haiti. Haiti’s Ministry of Defense is the main body of the armed forces. [242] The former Haitian Armed Forces were demobilized in 1995, however efforts to reconstitute it are currently underway. [243] The current defense force for Haiti is the Haitian National Police, which has a highly trained SWAT team, and works alongside the Haitian Coast Guard. In 2010, the Haitian National Police force numbered 7,000. Main articles: Haitian National Police and Crime in Haiti. Members of the Haitian National Police Force marching band stand at parade. The legal system is based on a modified version of the Napoleonic Code. Haiti has consistently ranked among the most corrupt countries in the world on the Corruption Perceptions Index. [246] According to a 2006 report by the Corruption Perceptions Index, there is a strong correlation between corruption and poverty in Haiti. The nation ranked first of all countries surveyed for levels of perceived domestic corruption. [248] Similarly, after the Haitian Army folded in 1995, the Haitian National Police (HNP) gained sole power of authority on the Haitian citizens. Many Haitians as well as observers of the Haitian society believe that this monopolized power could have given way to a corrupt police force. Similarly, some media outlets alleged that millions were stolen by former president Jean-Bertrand Aristide. [250][251][252][253] In March 2004, at the time of Aristide’s kidnapping, a BBC article wrote that the Bush administration State Department stated that Aristide had been involved in drug trafficking. [254] The BBC also described pyramid schemes, in which Haitians lost hundreds of millions in 2002, as the “only real economic initiative” of the Aristide years. Conversely, according to the 2013 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) report, murder rates in Haiti (10.2 per 100,000) are far below the regional average (26 per 100,000); less than. That of Jamaica (39.3 per 100,000) and nearly. That of the Dominican Republic (22.1 per 100,000), making it among the safer countries in the region. [256][257] In large part, this is due to the country’s ability to fulfil a pledge by increasing its national police yearly by 50%, a four-year initiative that was started in 2012. In addition to the yearly recruits, the Haitian National Police (HNP) has been using innovative technologies to crack down on crime. A notable bust in recent yearswhen? Led to the dismantlement of the largest kidnapping ring in the country with the use of an advanced software program developed by a West Point-trained Haitian official that proved to be so effective that it has led to its foreign advisers to make inquiries. In 2010, the New York City Police Department (NYPD) sent a team of veteran officers to Haiti to assist in the rebuilding of its police force with special training in investigative techniques, strategies to improve the anti-kidnapping personnel and community outreach to build stronger relationships with the public especially among the youth. It has also helped the HNP set up a police unit in the center of Delmas, a neighborhood of Port-au-Prince. In 2012 and 2013, 150 HNP officers received specialized training funded by the US government, which also contributed to the infrastructure and communications support by upgrading radio capacity and constructing new police stations from the most violent-prone neighborhoods of Cité Soleil and Grande Ravine in Port-au-Prince to the new northern industrial park at Caracol. Port-au-Prince penitentiary is home to half of Haiti’s prisoners. The prison has a capacity of 1,200 detainees but as of November 2017 the penitentiary was obliged to keep 4,359 detainees, a 454% occupancy level. [263] This leads to severe consequences for the inmates. One cell could hold up to 60 inmates which was originally designed for only 18, therefore creating tight and uncomfortable living conditions. The inmates are forced to create makeshift hammocks from the wall and ceilings. The men are on a 22/ 23 hour lock up in the cells so the risk of diseases is very high. [263] The inability to receive sufficient funds from the government as Haiti endures severe natural disasters which take up their attention and resources, such as the 2010 earthquake, has caused deadly cases of malnutrition, combined with the tight living conditions, increases the risk of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis which has led to 21 deaths in January 2017 alone at the Port-au-Prince penitentiary. Haitian law states that once arrested, one must go before a judge within 48 hours; however, this is very rare. In an interview with Unreported World, the prison governor stated that around 529 detainees were never sentenced, there are 3,830 detainees who are in prolonged detained trial detention. Therefore, 80% are not convicted. Unless families are able to provide the necessary funds for inmates to appear before a judge there is a very slim chance the inmate would have a trial, on average, within 10 years. Brian Concannon, the director of the non-profit Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti, claims that without a substantial bribe to persuade judges, prosecutors and lawyers to undergo their case, there is no prospect for getting a trial for years. Families may send food to the penitentiary; however, most inmates depend on the meals served twice a day. However, the majority of the meals consists of ration supplies of rice, oats or cornmeal, which has led to deadly cases of malnutrition-related ailments such as beriberi and anaemia. Prisoners too weak are crammed in the penitentiary infirmary. In confined living spaces for 22-23 hours a day, inmates are not provided with latrines and are forced to defecate into plastic bags and leave them outside their cells. These conditions were considered inhumane by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in 2008. Main article: Economy of Haiti. A proportional representation of Haiti’s exports. [19] The country uses the Haitian gourde as its currency. Despite its tourism industry, Haiti is one of the poorest countries in the Americas, with corruption, political instability, poor infrastructure, lack of health care and lack of education cited as the main causes. [19] Unemployment is high and many Haitians seek to emigrate. [4] Haiti ranked 145 of 182 countries in the 2010 United Nations Human Development Index, with 57.3% of the population being deprived in at least three of the HDI’s poverty measures. Following the disputed 2000 election and accusations about President Aristide’s rule, [268] US aid to the Haitian government was cut off between 2001 and 2004. [269] After Aristide’s departure in 2004, aid was restored and the Brazilian army led a United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti peacekeeping operation. After almost four years of recession, the economy grew by 1.5% in 2005. [270] In September 2009, Haiti met the conditions set out by the IMF and World Bank’s Heavily Indebted Poor Countries program to qualify for cancellation of its external debt. More than 90 percent of the government’s budget comes from an agreement with Petrocaribe, a Venezuela-led oil alliance. Further information: Foreign aid to Haiti. [273] The largest donor is the US, followed by Canada and the European Union. [276] Neighboring Dominican Republic has also provided extensive humanitarian aid to Haiti, including the funding and construction of a public university, [277] human capital, free healthcare services in the border region, and logistical support after the 2010 earthquake. According to the UN Office of the Special Envoy for Haiti, as of March 2012, of humanitarian funding committed or disbursed by bilateral and multilateral donors in 2010 and 2011, only 1% has been pledged to the Haitian government. According to the 2015 CIA World Factbook, Haiti’s main import partners are: Dominican Republic 35%, US 26.8%, Netherlands Antilles 8.7%, China 7% est. Haiti’s main export partner is the US 83.5% est. Main article: Electricity sector in Haiti. Haiti electricity production by source. In 1925, the city of Jacmel was the first area in the Caribbean to have electricity and was subsequently dubbed the City of Light. Today, Haiti relies heavily on an oil alliance with Petrocaribe for much of its energy requirements. In recent years, hydroelectric, solar and wind energy have been explored as possible sustainable energy sources. Power plant in Port-au-Prince. As of 2017, among all the countries in the Americas, Haiti is producing the least amount of energy. Less than a quarter of the country has electric coverage. [286] Most regions of Haiti that do have energy are powered by generators. These generators are often expensive and produce a lot of pollution. The areas that do get electricity experience power cuts on a daily basis, and some areas are limited to 12 hours of electricity a day. Electricity is provided by a small number of independent companies: Sogener, E-power, and Haytrac. [287] There is no national electricity grid within the country. [288] The most common source of energy used is wood, along with charcoal. In Haiti, about 4 million metric tons of wood products are consumed yearly. [289] Like charcoal and wood, petroleum is also an important source of energy for Haiti. Since Haiti cannot produce its own fuel, all fuel is imported. Yearly, around 691,000 tons of oil is imported into the country. On 31 October 2018, Evenson Calixte, the General Director of energy regulation (ANARSE) announced the 24 hour electricity project. To meet this objective, 236 MW needs to installed in Port-au-Prince alone, with an additional 75 MW needed in all other regions in the country. Presently only 27.5% of the population has access to electricity; moreover, the national energy agency l’Électricité d’Haïti (Ed’H) is only able to meet 62% of overall electricity demand said Fritz Caillot, the Minister of Public Works, Transportation and Communication Travaux publics, transport et communication (TPTC). A market in Cap-Haïtien. Haiti suffers from a shortage of skilled labor, widespread unemployment, and underemployment. Most Haitians in the labor force have informal jobs. [292] In 2004, 80% or more of college graduates from Haiti were living abroad. Occasionally, families who are unable to care for children financially may send them to live with a wealthier family as a restavek, or house servant. In return the family are supposed to ensure that the child is educated and provided with food and shelter, however the system is open to abuse and has proved controversial, with some likening it to child slavery. In rural areas, people often live in wooden huts with corrugated iron roofs. Outhouses are located in back of the huts. In Port-au-Prince, colorful shantytowns surround the central city and go up the mountainsides. The middle and upper classes live in suburbs, or in the central part of the bigger cities in apartments, where there is urban planning. Many of the houses they live in are like miniature fortresses, located behind walls embedded with metal spikes, barbed wire, broken glass, and sometimes all three. The gates to these houses are barred at night, the house is locked; guard dogs patrol the yard. These houses are often self-sufficient as well. The houses have backup generators, because the electrical grid in Haiti is unreliable. Some even have rooftop reservoirs for water, as the water supply is also unreliable. Further information: Agriculture in Haiti. Rows of cabbage, Haiti. Haiti is the world’s leading producer of vetiver, a root plant used to make luxury perfumes, essential oils and fragrances, providing for half the world’s supply. [297][298][299] Roughly 40-50% of Haitians work in the agricultural sector. [19][300] Haiti relies upon imports for half its food needs and 80% of its rice. Haiti exports crops such as mangoes, cacao, coffee, papayas, mahogany nuts, spinach, and watercress. [301] Agricultural products comprise 6% of all exports. [283] In addition, local agricultural products include maize, beans, cassava, sweet potato, peanuts, pistachios, bananas, millet, pigeon peas, sugarcane, rice, sorghum, and wood. Main article: Haitian gourde. The Haitian gourde (HTG) is the national currency. [citation needed] The vast majority of the business sector and individuals in Haiti will also accept US dollars, though at the outdoor markets gourdes may be preferred. Locals may refer to the USD as “dollar américain” (dola ameriken) or “dollar US” (pronounced oo-es). Main article: Tourism in Haiti. The tourism market in Haiti is undeveloped and the government is heavily promoting this sector. Haiti has many of the features that attract tourists to other Caribbean destinations, such as white sand beaches, mountainous scenery and a year-round warm climate, however the country’s poor image overseas, at times exaggerated, has hampered the development of this sector. Several hotels were opened in 2014, including an upscale Best Western Premier, [304][305] a five-star Royal Oasis hotel by Occidental Hotel and Resorts in Pétion-Ville, [306][307][308] a four-star Marriott Hotel in the Turgeau area of Port-au-Prince[309] and other new hotel developments in Port-au-Prince, Les Cayes, Cap-Haïtien and Jacmel. The Haitian Carnival has been one of the most popular carnivals in the Caribbean. In 2010, the government decided to stage the event in a different city outside Port-au-Prince every year in an attempt to decentralize the country. [310][311] The National Carnival – usually held in one of the country’s largest cities i. Port-au-Prince, Cap-Haïtien or Les Cayes – follows the also very popular Jacmel Carnival, which takes place a week earlier in February or March. On 21 October 2012, Haitian President Michel Martelly, US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, Bill Clinton, Richard Branson, Ben Stiller and Sean Penn inaugurated the 240-hectare (600-acre) Caracol industrial park, the largest in the Caribbean. Ltd, one of the park’s main tenants, has created 5,000 permanent jobs out of the 20,000 projected and has built 8,600 houses in the surrounding area for its workers. The industrial park ultimately has the potential to create as many as 65,000 jobs once fully developed. Main article: Transport in Haiti. Rail map as of 1925. Haiti has two main highways that run from one end of the country to the other. The northern highway, Route Nationale No. 1 (National Highway One), originates in Port-au-Prince, winding through the coastal towns of Montrouis and Gonaïves, before reaching its terminus at the northern port Cap-Haïtien. The southern highway, Route Nationale No. 2, links Port-au-Prince with Les Cayes via Léogâne and Petit-Goâve. The state of Haiti’s roads are generally poor, many being potholed and becoming impassable in rough weather. According to the Washington Post, Officials from the U. Army Corps of Engineers said Saturday [23 January 2010] that they assessed the damage from the [12 January] quake in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, and found that many of the roads aren’t any worse than they were before because they’ve always been in poor condition. The port’s facilities include cranes, large berths, and warehouses, but these facilities are not in good condition. The port of Saint-Marc is currently the preferred port of entry for consumer goods coming into Haiti. Reasons for this may include its location away from volatile and congested Port-au-Prince, as well as its central location relative to numerous Haitian cities. In the past, Haiti used rail transport, however the rail infrastructure was poorly maintained when in use and cost of rehabilitation is beyond the means of the Haitian economy. In 2018 the Regional Development Council of the Dominican Republic proposed a “trans-Hispaniola” railway between both countries. Toussaint L’Ouverture International Airport. Main article: List of airports in Haiti. Toussaint Louverture International Airport, located ten kilometres (six miles) north-northeast of Port-au-Prince proper in the commune of Tabarre, is the primary transportation hub regarding entry and exit into the country. It has Haiti’s main jetway, and along with Cap-Haïtien International Airport located near the northern city of Cap-Haïtien, handles the vast majority of the country’s international flights. Cities such as Jacmel, Jérémie, Les Cayes, and Port-de-Paix have smaller, less accessible airports that are serviced by regional airlines and private aircraft. Such companies include: Caribintair (defunct), Sunrise Airways and Tortug’ Air (defunct). In 2013, plans for the development of an international airport on Île-à-Vache were introduced by the Prime Minister. A “Tap tap” bus in Port-Salut. Tap tap buses are colorfully painted buses or pick-up trucks that serve as share taxis. The “tap tap” name comes from the sound of passengers tapping on the metal bus body to indicate they want off. [319] These vehicles for hire are often privately owned and extensively decorated. They follow fixed routes, do not leave until filled with passengers, and riders can usually disembark at any point. The decorations are a typically Haitian form of art. In August 2013, the first coach bus prototype was made in Haiti. Main articles: Telecommunications in Haiti and Television in Haiti. In Haiti, communications include the radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Haiti ranked last among North American countries in the World Economic Forum’s Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country’s information and communication technologies. Haiti ranked number 143 out of 148 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, down from 141 in 2013. Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Haiti. Haiti faces key challenges in the water supply and sanitation sector: Notably, access to public services is very low, their quality is inadequate and public institutions remain very weak despite foreign aid and the government’s declared intent to strengthen the sector’s institutions. Foreign and Haitian NGOs play an important role in the sector, especially in rural and urban slum areas. Main article: Demographics of Haiti. Haiti’s population is about 10,788,000 July 2018 est. [19] with half of the population younger than age 20. [323] In 1950, the first formal census gave a total population of 3.1 million. [324] Haiti averages approximately 350 people per square kilometer 900 per sq mi. , with its population concentrated most heavily in urban areas, coastal plains, and valleys. Most Haitians are descendants of former black African slaves, including Mulattoes who are mixed-race. [19] The remainder are of European or Arab descent, the descendants of settlers (colonial remnants and contemporary immigration during World War I and World War II). [325][326] Haitians of East Asian descent or East Indian origin number approximately more than 400. At the time of the Haitian Revolution war, an event that involved the eradication of whites (mostly French) in Haiti, many of the blacks in Haiti were African-born and had no non-African admixture. This was because the average African slave in colonial Haiti had a short life span and France continuously imported thousands of Africans yearly to keep the slave population up, by 1790 there were nearly 600,000 slaves, outnumbering whites about 20 to 1. There are an estimated 881,500 Haitians in the United States, [328] 800,000 in the Dominican Republic, [329] 300,000 in Cuba, [330] 100,000 in Canada, [331] 80,000 in France, [332] and up to 80,000 in the Bahamas. [333] There are also smaller Haitian communities in many other countries, including Chile, Switzerland, Japan and Australia. In 2018, the life expectancy at birth was 63.66 years. The gene pool of Haiti is about 95.5% Sub-Saharan African, 4.3% European, with the rest showing some traces of East Asian genes;[335] according to a 2010 autosomal genealogical DNA testing. This section needs expansion with: information about Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups, which assesses the DNA inherited by matriline. You can help by adding to it. A 2012 genetic study on Haitian and Jamaican Y-chromosomal ancestry has revealed that both populations “exhibit a predominantly Sub-Saharan paternal component, with haplogroups A1b-V152, A3-M32, B2-M182, E1a-M33, E1b1a-M2, E2b-M98, and R1b2-V88″ comprising (77.2%) of the Haitian and (66.7%) of Jamaican paternal gene pools. [336] Y-chromosomes indicative of European ancestry i. Haplogroups G2a-P15, I-M258, R1b1b-M269, and T-M184 were detected at commensurate levels in Haiti (20.3%) and Jamaica (18.9%). [336] While Y-haplogroups indicative of Chinese O-M175 (3.8%) and Indian H-M69 (0.6%) and L-M20 (0.6%) ancestry were found at significant levels in Jamaica, [336] Levantine Y-haplogroups were found in Haiti. According to a 2008 study examining the frequency of the Duffy antigen receptor for Chemokines (DARC) Single Nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), (75%) of Haitian women sampled exhibited the CC genotype (absent among women of European ancestry) at levels comparable to US African-Americans (73%), but more than Jamaican females (63%). Main article: Gens de couleur. Under colonial rule, Haitian mulattoes were generally privileged above the black majority, though they possessed fewer rights than the white population. Following the country’s independence, they became the nation’s social elite. Numerous leaders throughout Haiti’s history have been mulattoes. During this time, the slaves and the affranchis were given limited opportunities toward education, income, and occupations, but even after gaining independence, the social structure remains a legacy today as the disparity between the upper and lower classes have not been reformed significantly since the colonial days. [339] Comprising 5% of the nation’s population, mulattoes have retained their preeminence, evident in the political, economic, social and cultural hierarchy in Haiti. [340] As a result, the elite class today consists of a small group of influential people who are generally light in color and continue to establish themselves in high, prestigious positions. Main article: Religion in Haiti. Religion in Haiti according to the Pew Research Center (2010)[342]. The 2017 CIA Factbook reported that around 54.7% of Haitians profess to being Catholics while Protestants made up about 28.5% of the population (Baptist 15.4%, Pentecostal 7.9%, Seventh-day Adventist 3%, Methodist 1.5%, other 0.7%). Other sources put the Protestant population higher than this, suggesting that it might have formed one-third of the population in 2001. [343] Like other countries in Latin America, Haiti has witnessed a general Protestant expansion, which is largely Evangelical and Pentecostal in nature. Haitian Cardinal Chibly Langlois is president of the National Bishops Conference of the Catholic Church. Vodou, a religion with West African roots similar to those of Cuba and Brazil, originated during colonial times in which slaves were obliged to disguise their loa (lwa), or spirits, as Catholic saints, an element of a process called syncretism and is still practiced by some Haitians today. Due to the religious syncretism between Catholicism and Vodou, it is difficult to estimate the number of Vodouists in Haiti. [347][348] The religion has historically been persecuted and misrepresented in popular media, however in 2003 the Government recognized the faith as an official religion of the nation. Many Catholics and Protestants in Haiti denounce Vodou as devil worship, but do not deny the power of such spirits. Instead, they regard them as adversaries who are “evil” and “satanic”, which they are often encouraged to pray against. Protestants view Catholic veneration of Saints as idol worship, even though the veneration of saints has scriptural basis in the Holy Bible, and some Protestants would often destroy statues and other Catholic paraphernalia. Minority religions in Haiti include Islam, Bahá’í Faith, Judaism, and Buddhism. The two official languages of Haiti are French and Haitian Creole. French is the principal written and administratively authorized language (as well as the main language of the press) and is spoken by 42% of Haitians. [350][351] It is spoken by all educated Haitians, is the medium of instruction in most schools, and is used in the business sector. It is also used in ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations and church Masses. Haiti is one of two independent nations in the Americas (along with Canada) to designate French as an official language; the other French-speaking areas are all overseas départements, or collectivités, of France, such as French Guiana. Haitian Creole is spoken by nearly all of the Haitian population. French, the base language for Haitian Creole, is popular among the Haitian elite and upper classes. French is also popular in the business sector, and to a far lesser degree, English due to American influence. Spanish is growing in popularity among Haitians who live along the Haitian-Dominican border. [352] English and Spanish are also popular among Haitian deportees from the United States and various Latin American countries. Though, about 90-95% of Haitians only speak Haitian Creole/French fluently, with over half only knowing Creole. Haitian Creole, [354] which has recently undergone a standardization, is spoken by virtually the entire population of Haiti. [355] Haitian Creole is one of the French-based creole languages. Its vocabulary is 90% derived from French, but its grammar resembles that of some West African languages. It also has influences from Taino, Spanish, and Portuguese. [356] Haitian Creole is related to the other French creoles, but most closely to the Antillean Creole and Louisiana Creole variants. Main article: Haitian diaspora. There is a large Haitian diaspora community, predominantly based in the US and Canada, France, and the wealthier Caribbean islands. Emigrants from Haiti have constituted a segment of American and Canadian society since before the independence of Haiti from France in 1804. [357][358] Many influential early American settlers and black freemen, including Jean Baptiste Point du Sable and W. Du Bois, were of Haitian origin. [359][360][361][362]. Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, an immigrant from Saint-Domingue (now the Republic of Haiti), founded the first nonindigenous settlement in what is now Chicago, Illinois, the third largest city in the United States. The state of Illinois and city of Chicago declared du Sable the founder of Chicago on 26 October 1968. Further information: List of cities in Haiti. Largest cities or towns in Haiti. Carrefour in Metro P. Delmas in Metro P. Pétion-Ville in Metro P. Croix des Bouquets in Metro P. Main article: Culture of Haiti. Part of a series on the. Music and performing arts. [363] Haiti’s culture is greatly reflected in its paintings, music, and literature. Galleries and museums in the United States and France have exhibited the works of the better-known artists to have come out of Haiti. Main article: Haitian art. Haitian art is distinctive, particularly through its paintings and sculptures. [363][365][366] Brilliant colors, naïve perspectives, and sly humor characterize Haitian art. Frequent subjects in Haitian art include big, delectable foods, lush landscapes, market activities, jungle animals, rituals, dances, and gods. As a result of a deep history and strong African ties, symbols take on great meaning within Haitian society. For example, a rooster often represents Aristide and the red and blue colors of the Haitian flag often represent his Lavalas party. [citation needed] Many artists cluster in’schools’ of painting, such as the Cap-Haïtien school, which features depictions of daily life in the city, the Jacmel School, which reflects the steep mountains and bays of that coastal town, or the Saint-Soleil School, which is characterised by abstracted human forms and is heavily influenced by Vodou symbolism. In the 1920s the indigéniste movement gained international acclaim, with its expressionist paintings inspired by Haiti’s culture and African roots. Notable painters of this movement include Hector Hyppolite, Philomé Oban and Préfète Duffaut. [367] Some notable artists of more recent times include Edouard Duval-Carrié, Frantz Zéphirin, Leroy Exil, Prosper Pierre Louis and Louisiane Saint Fleurant. [367] Sculpture is also practised in Haiti; noted artists in this form include George Liautaud and Serge Jolimeau. Further information: Music of Haiti. Haitian music combines a wide range of influences drawn from the many people who have settled here. It reflects French, African and Spanish elements and others who have inhabited the island of Hispaniola, and minor native Taino influences. Styles of music unique to the nation of Haiti include music derived from Vodou ceremonial traditions, Rara parading music, Twoubadou ballads, mini-jazz rock bands, Rasin movement, Hip hop kreyòl, méringue, [369] and compas. Youth attend parties at nightclubs called discos, (pronounced “deece-ko”), and attend Bal. This term is the French word for ball, as in a formal dance. Compas (konpa) (also known as compas direct in French, or konpa dirèk in creole)[370] is a complex, ever-changing music that arose from African rhythms and European ballroom dancing, mixed with Haiti’s bourgeois culture. It is a refined music, with méringue as its basic rhythm. Haiti had no recorded music until 1937 when Jazz Guignard was recorded non-commercially. Main article: Haitian literature. Haiti has always been a literary nation that has produced poetry, novels, and plays of international recognition. The French colonial experience established the French language as the venue of culture and prestige, and since then it has dominated the literary circles and the literary production. However, since the 18th century there has been a sustained effort to write in Haitian Creole. The recognition of Creole as an official language has led to an expansion of novels, poems, and plays in Creole. [372] In 1975, Franketienne was the first to break with the French tradition in fiction with the publication of Dezafi, the first novel written entirely in Haitian Creole; the work offers a poetic picture of Haitian life. [373] Other well known Haitian authors include Jean Price-Mars, Jacques Roumain, Marie Vieux-Chauvet, Pierre Clitandre, René Depestre, Edwidge Danticat, Lyonel Trouillot and Dany Laferrière. Haiti has a small though growing cinema industry. Well-known directors working primarily in documentary film-making include Raoul Peck and Arnold Antonin. Directors producing fictional films include Patricia Benoît, Wilkenson Bruna and Richard Senecal. Main article: Haitian cuisine. Bottle of Barbancourt Rhum. Haiti is famous for its creole cuisine (which related to Cajun cuisine), and its soup joumou. Sans-Souci Palace, National History Park, Haiti. See also: List of World Heritage Sites in Haiti. Monuments include the Sans-Souci Palace and the Citadelle Laferrière, inscribed as a World Heritage site in 1982. [375] Situated in the Northern Massif du Nord, in one of Haiti’s National Parks, the structures date from the early 19th century. [376] The buildings were among the first built after Haiti’s independence from France. The Citadelle Laferrière, is the largest fortress in the Americas, is located in northern Haiti. It was built between 1805 and 1820 and is today referred to by some Haitians as the eighth wonder of the world. The Institute for the Protection of National Heritage has preserved 33 historical monuments and the historic center of Cap-Haïtien. Jacmel, a colonial city that was tentatively accepted as a World Heritage site, was extensively damaged by the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Santa María’s anchor on display. Main article: Haitian mythology. Haiti is known for its folklore traditions. [379] Much of this is rooted in Haitian Vodou tradition. Belief in zombies is also common. [380] Other folkloric creatures include the lougarou. Further information: Public holidays in Haiti. The most festive time of the year in Haiti is during Carnival (referred to as Kanaval in Haitian Creole or Mardi Gras) in February. [citation needed] There is music, parade floats, and dancing and singing in the streets. Carnival week is traditionally a time of all-night parties. Rara is a festival celebrated before Easter. The festival has generated a style of Carnival music. Haiti national football team training in Port-au-Prince, 2004. Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Haiti with hundreds of small football clubs competing at the local level. Basketball and baseball are growing in popularity. [383][384] Stade Sylvio Cator is the multi-purpose stadium in Port-au-Prince, where it is currently used mostly for association football matches that fits a capacity of 10,000 people. In 1974, the Haiti national football team were only the second Caribbean team to make the World Cup (after Cuba’s entry in 1938). They lost in the opening qualifying stages against three of the pre-tournament favorites; Italy, Poland, and Argentina. The national team won the 2007 Caribbean Nations Cup. Haiti has participated in the Olympic Games since the year 1900 and won a number of medals. Haitian footballer Joe Gaetjens played for the United States national team in the 1950 FIFA World Cup, scoring the winning goal in the 1-0 upset of England. Main article: List of Haitians. Comte d’Estaing – in command of more than 500 volunteers from Saint-Domingue; fought alongside American colonial troops against the British in the Siege of Savannah, one of the most significant foreign contributions to the American Revolutionary War in 1779[387]. Raquel Pelissier – one of Haiti’s most remarkable beauty queens; Miss Universe 2017 first runner-up and Reina Hispanoamericana 2016 third runner-up. Frankétienne – arguably Haiti’s greatest author; candidate for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2009. Garcelle Beauvais – television actress (NYPD Blue, The Jamie Foxx Show). Jean Baptiste Point du Sable – might have been born in St Marc, Saint-Domingue; in 1745 established a fur trading post at present-day Chicago, Illinois; considered one of the city’s founders. Jean Lafitte – pirate who operated around New Orleans and Galveston on the Gulf Coast of the United States; born in Port-au-Prince around 1782[388]. Jørgen Leth – Danish poet and filmmaker[389]. Sean Penn – American Oscar Award-winning actor, who currently serves as Ambassador-at-large for Haiti; the first non-Haitian citizen to hold such a position[390]. Michaëlle Jean – 3rd Secretary-General of La Francophonie and 27th Governor General of Canada; born in Port-au-Prince in 1957 and lived in Haiti until 1968. Wyclef Jean – Grammy Award-winning hip-hop recording artist. Modeste Testas – formerly enslaved Ethiopian woman, whose statue is in Bordeaux. Main article: Education in Haiti. The Universite Roi Henri Christophe in Limonade. The educational system of Haiti is based on the French system. Higher education, under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, [391] is provided by universities and other public and private institutions. More than 80% of primary schools are privately managed by nongovernmental organizations, churches, communities, and for-profit operators, with minimal government oversight. [393] According to the 2013 Millennium Development Goals (MDG) Report, Haiti has steadily boosted net enrollment rate in primary education from 47% in 1993 to 88% in 2011, achieving equal participation of boys and girls in education. [394] Charity organizations, including Food for the Poor and Haitian Health Foundation, are building schools for children and providing necessary school supplies. According to CIA 2015 World Factbook, Haiti’s literacy rate is now 60.7% est. The January 2010 earthquake, was a major setback for education reform in Haiti as it diverted limited resources to survival. Many reformers have advocated the creation of a free, public and universal education system for all primary school-age students in Haiti. Upon successful graduation of secondary school, students may continue into higher education. The higher education schools in Haiti include the University of Haiti. There are also medical schools and law schools offered at both the University of Haiti and abroad. Presently, Brown University is cooperating with L’Hôpital Saint-Damien in Haiti to coordinate a pediatric health care curriculum. Main article: Health in Haiti. In the past, children’s vaccination rates have been low – as of 2012, 60% of the children in Haiti under the age of 10 were vaccinated, [398][399] compared to rates of childhood vaccination in other countries in the 93-95% range. [400] Recently there have been mass vaccination campaigns claiming to vaccinate as many as 91% of a target population against specific diseases (measles and rubella in this case). [401] Most people have no transportation or access to Haitian hospitals. The World Health Organization cites diarrheal diseases, HIV/AIDS, meningitis, and respiratory infections as common causes of death in Haiti. [403] Ninety percent of Haiti’s children suffer from waterborne diseases and intestinal parasites. [404] HIV infection is found in 1.71% of Haiti’s population est. [405] The incidence of tuberculosis (TB) in Haiti is more than ten times as high as in the rest of Latin America. [406] Approximately 30,000 Haitians fall ill with malaria each year. Most people living in Haiti are at high risk for major infectious diseases. Food or water-borne diseases include bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, typhoid fever and hepatitis A and E; common vector-borne diseases are dengue fever and malaria; water-contact diseases include leptospirosis. Roughly 75% of Haitian households lack running water. Unsafe water, along with inadequate housing and unsanitary living conditions, contributes to the high incidence of infectious diseases. There is a chronic shortage of health care personnel and hospitals lack resources, a situation that became readily apparent after the January 2010 earthquake. [408] The infant mortality rate in Haiti in 2019 was 48.2 deaths per 1,000 live births, compared to 5.6 per 1,000 in the United States. After the 2010 earthquake, Partners In Health founded the Hôpital Universitaire de Mirebalais, the largest solar-powered hospital in the world. This item is in the category “Collectibles\Autographs\Historical”. The seller is “memorabilia111″ and is located in this country: US. This item can be shipped to United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, Japan, Korea, South, Indonesia, South Africa, Thailand, Hong Kong, Bahamas, Israel, Mexico, New Zealand, Singapore, Switzerland, Norway, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Malaysia, Chile, Colombia, Panama, Jamaica, Barbados, Bangladesh, Bermuda, Brunei Darussalam, Bolivia, Egypt, French Guiana, Guernsey, Gibraltar, Guadeloupe, Iceland, Jersey, Jordan, Cambodia, Cayman Islands, Liechtenstein, Sri Lanka, Monaco, Macau, Martinique, Maldives, Nicaragua, Oman, Pakistan, Paraguay, Reunion, Uruguay.
FLORVIL HYPPOLITE Haitian president signed autograph Haiti scarce Panama M Tombe

Vintage SIGNED 1932 American Individualism by Herbert Hoover President

vintage
Vintage SIGNED 1932 American Individualism by Herbert Hoover President
Vintage SIGNED 1932 American Individualism by Herbert Hoover President
Vintage SIGNED 1932 American Individualism by Herbert Hoover President
Vintage SIGNED 1932 American Individualism by Herbert Hoover President
Vintage SIGNED 1932 American Individualism by Herbert Hoover President
Vintage SIGNED 1932 American Individualism by Herbert Hoover President
Vintage SIGNED 1932 American Individualism by Herbert Hoover President
Vintage SIGNED 1932 American Individualism by Herbert Hoover President
Vintage SIGNED 1932 American Individualism by Herbert Hoover President
Vintage SIGNED 1932 American Individualism by Herbert Hoover President
Vintage SIGNED 1932 American Individualism by Herbert Hoover President
Vintage SIGNED 1932 American Individualism by Herbert Hoover President

Vintage SIGNED 1932 American Individualism by Herbert Hoover President
Vintage1923 Herbert Hoover SIGNED “American Individualism”. Personal note from Douglas G. Woolf, Chairman– Editorial Advisory Committee. Normal wear for age of book. Spine/pages in the beginning are loose. All details are in photos. Please contact me for any questions. This item is in the category “Collectibles\Autographs\Political\Presidential”. The seller is “robofr-5″ and is located in this country: US. This item can be shipped to United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Denmark, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Estonia, Australia, Greece, Portugal, Cyprus, Slovenia, Japan, China, Sweden, Korea, South, Indonesia, Taiwan, South Africa, Thailand, Belgium, France, Hong Kong, Ireland, Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Italy, Germany, Austria, Bahamas, Israel, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, Switzerland, Norway, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Croatia, Republic of, Malaysia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Panama, Trinidad and Tobago, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Jamaica, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts-Nevis, Saint Lucia, Montserrat, Turks and Caicos Islands, Barbados, Bangladesh, Bermuda, Brunei Darussalam, Bolivia, Egypt, French Guiana, Guernsey, Gibraltar, Guadeloupe, Iceland, Jersey, Jordan, Cambodia, Cayman Islands, Liechtenstein, Sri Lanka, Luxembourg, Monaco, Macau, Martinique, Maldives, Nicaragua, Oman, Pakistan, Paraguay, Reunion, Uruguay.
  • Industry: Presidential
  • President: Herbert Hoover
  • Signed by: Herbert Hoover
  • Signed: Yes
  • Autograph Authentication: Not Authenticated
  • Original/Reproduction: Original
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: United States
  • Modified Item: No

Vintage SIGNED 1932 American Individualism by Herbert Hoover President

Franklin D Roosevelt Autograph Signed PSA DNA President FDR Auto Rare New York

franklin
Franklin D Roosevelt Autograph Signed PSA DNA President FDR Auto Rare New York
Franklin D Roosevelt Autograph Signed PSA DNA President FDR Auto Rare New York

Franklin D Roosevelt Autograph Signed PSA DNA President FDR Auto Rare New York
Roosevelt Signed New York Executive Mansion Signature Card. Roosevelt signed this State of New York Executive Mansion signature card. This item is in the category “Collectibles\Autographs\Political\Presidential”. The seller is “collinstuff” and is located in this country: US. This item can be shipped to United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Denmark, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Estonia, Australia, Greece, Portugal, Cyprus, Slovenia, Japan, China, Sweden, Korea, South, Indonesia, Taiwan, South Africa, Thailand, Belgium, France, Hong Kong, Ireland, Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Italy, Germany, Austria, Bahamas, Israel, Mexico, New Zealand, Singapore, Switzerland, Norway, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Croatia, Republic of, Malaysia, Chile, Colombia, Panama, Jamaica, Barbados, Bangladesh, Bermuda, Brunei Darussalam, Bolivia, Egypt, French Guiana, Guernsey, Gibraltar, Guadeloupe, Iceland, Jersey, Jordan, Cambodia, Cayman Islands, Liechtenstein, Sri Lanka, Luxembourg, Monaco, Macau, Martinique, Maldives, Nicaragua, Oman, Pakistan, Paraguay, Reunion, Uruguay.
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: United States
  • President: Franklin Delano Roosevelt
  • Original/Reproduction: Original
  • Signed by: Franklin D Roosevelt
  • Autograph Authentication: Professional Sports (PSA/DNA)
  • Signed: Yes
  • Industry: Presidential

Franklin D Roosevelt Autograph Signed PSA DNA President FDR Auto Rare New York

Donald Trump Autograph Signed President Original 2016 Campaign Sign JSA

donald
Donald Trump Autograph Signed President Original 2016 Campaign Sign JSA
Donald Trump Autograph Signed President Original 2016 Campaign Sign JSA
Donald Trump Autograph Signed President Original 2016 Campaign Sign JSA
Donald Trump Autograph Signed President Original 2016 Campaign Sign JSA
Donald Trump Autograph Signed President Original 2016 Campaign Sign JSA

Donald Trump Autograph Signed President Original 2016 Campaign Sign JSA
Donald Trump Autograph Signed President Original 2016 Campaign Sign JSA. This item is in the category “Collectibles\Autographs\Political\Presidential”. The seller is “soo_mar” and is located in this country: US. This item can be shipped to United States.
  • President: Donald Trump
  • Signed by: Donald Trump
  • Signed: Yes
  • Autograph Authentication: James Spence (JSA)
  • Original/Reproduction: Original
  • Featured Refinements: Donald Trump Autograph
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: United States

Donald Trump Autograph Signed President Original 2016 Campaign Sign JSA